Propaganda Essay -- essays research papers

Distorted Mirror of Reality All propaganda must be pop and its intellectual level must be adjusted to the intimately particular(a) intelligence among those it is addressed to, consequently, the greater the mass it is intended to reach, the lower its rigorously intellectual level will have to be.Adolf Hitler Mein Kampf Psychology of PropagandaFascism is a stage of counter-revolutionary politics that first arose in the early part of the twentieth-century in Europe. It was a response to the rapid social upheaval, the devastation of World War I, and unsteady economy. Fascism is a philosophy or a system of government that advocates or exercises a dictatorship of the extreme right, typically through the merging of terra firma and business leadership, together with an ideology of aggressive depicted objectism. It promotes celebrating the nation or the hunt as a pure community surpassing all other(a) loyalties. This right-wing political philosophy will even advocate lurid action t o maintain this loyalty which is held in such high regards. The approximately recognized name that goes along with Fascism is Germanys Adolf Hitler, a founder of the national socialist party who rose to power in 1933. Some of the key mythologic goals of National Socialist movement in 1930s Germany were to activate the mint as a whole a accumulatest perceived oppressors or enemies, to create a pure nation of unity, and to establish ultimate control of one peremptory leader, Hitler, from whom all power proceeds downward. Nationalism thus became a central component of the Third Reich. As a result, art of propaganda was considered to be the most crucial element in establishing the new Reich as envisioned by Hitler. Politics and aesthetics seemingly united in this context. Art became a cultural and political mission in Germany and it led to an increase in ethnic propaganda. This essay, therefore, will analytically discuss the mythic context of Hitlers Race and Nation and Leni Riefens tahls film, Triumph of the Will by examining its moment within Nazi conceptions of Aryanism and art. Adolf Hitlers Mein Kampf (My Struggle) dwells on his views on the significance of race in culture and social systems, and particularly on his perception of the role of Aryans and Jews in culture creation and destruction. In order to bring together and gain support from the majority of the nation Hitler praises the mythical importance of Aryan race,... ...ent. Riefenstahls pellet of the film brings out not notwithstanding the spoken content of the Nazi mythology, but also expresses their ideals through heavy visual imagery. Clearly in the beginning of the movie we observe the birth of a myth when a serious and gloomy atmosphere surrounds the mythic message with the titles, 16 old age after the German woe began... then changes to an uplifting mood when the titles say, 19 months after the beginning of Germanys rebirth... We sense almost unbearable tension of first moment as repre sented through the euphony and the lighting, later the tone of the music gets somewhat subdued and turns into something dreamy, mystical while we see the billowing clouds. When the project of Nuremberg appears through the clouds the music turns into the Nazi anthem, which continues while we see the shadow of the categoric over the marching columns of storm troopers. This demonstrates the significance of the music for creating the desired aflame impression among the viewers. Also, one must not underestimate the importance of the national anthem in the attempts of a party to ascertain that they are the only party that truly represents the people and the nation.

Plan For Development Of Human Capital

The staff development and leadhip develop models and programs of Clark County School district includes various aspects like Specific goals for educatee achievement, Time-bound goals for savant achievement, Strong, internal evaluation practices and Time and Opportunity. (Wiedemann, 2006, 6) But from the perspective of modern compassionate Resource and development there are still rooms for improvements. The of import acquire of an able leader is to produce confident, main(a) understanders and support staffs complete(a) a capacity for self assessment.The first of these factors deals with spiritual dimension of the leaders in the context and perception of their disciples and support staffs. The second factor deals with personal dimension where the focus is mainly laid down on the classroom environment. The third factor is the instructional dimension where the teaching skills of the teachers are taken into consideration. Lastly there is the factor of managerial dimension wh ich is focused on dealing with addressing student behavior. (Finnis, 2003)To maintain standards in educational tolerance and sensitivity, we mustiness(prenominal) learn about each student item-by-itemly. This would be for their benefit to not only realize their goals and aspirations but to know their potential limitations and help them in the discovery of methods toward surpassing those limitations in hostelry to gain access to their aspirations. Professors must also provide the students the outside methods toward attaining confidence in their ability to learn new skills in forwarding their education.Consistent teaching and learning is managed in order to improve attainment resources for teaching and learning in the form of revisal guides, coursework help, lesson plans, worksheets, tasks and links to other sites. (Zimmerman, 2002) This has often resulted in improved consistency in teaching and would also have enabled students access to useful materials encouraging independent l earning. It should also be mentioned that Leaders and the aspect of leadership must be efficient and intelligent.Let us take the example of Peters and Waterman, who in In hunt club of Excellence thought of being visible and management by walkabout. The courtesy and expertise of managers should support the endeavours of the Staffs. Staffs should feel that they are guided by the managers in perusing their duties. By sound management techniques the ambitions of participative leadership and the human relations school can be achieved. (Wright, 2004)In general it can be state that strategies followed by the school are to EXPAND its student and staff founding and enhance the moral by pursuing multimedia opportunities, DELIVER an award-winning level of honesty, building public interest, trust and pride, PROVIDE vigorous leadership and support in the institution, INSTILL an environment of internal and external excellence in customer service, EMPOWER and recognize each staffs unique cont ribution, get the highest standards of quality, IMPROVE motivation strength and thus build up a considerable level of human capital.(Berkowitz, 2000)In conclusion it should be the main aim to produce confident, independent learners thorough a capacity for self assessment. In this manner gaining independence in their education and the capacity to achieve pass on further their aspirations toward higher goals.Providing a baseline for their understanding and ability to act with them and then first ascertaining their learning level prior to assigning the individual goals as well as the overall goals for each individual student is an important step toward gaining understanding and the capacity for learning. Taking the steps adumbrate in the Classroom Strategy and adapting them to the differentials provided by the learning styles of each student is an important aspect for consideration and would in fact manage to be one of the goals set to achieve as a teacher. (Manning, 2003)Reference sBerkowitz L (2000) leadership and Implementations Findings and Enactment. New Haven and London Yale University Press.Finnis, J. 2003. Fundamentals of Leadership Georgetown University PressManning, Schissler Susan. (2003). honourable Leadership in Human Services A Multi-Dimensional Approach, New York Allyn and Bacon.Wiedemann, Denise 2006 District School Improvement Amao Plan Clark County School District Las Vegas Nevada retrieved on 28.06.2007 fromhttp//ccsd.net/schools/pdf/DSIP2006-full.pdfWright, Robert 2004 The moral Animal why we are the way we are. Little, Brown & CoZimmerman, S (2002) Introduction to Management Principals National Book Trust

Citizenship Birthright Under Fire

Citizenship Birthright Under Fire Summary During nonp aril morning in Washington, DC, Senator Mitch McConnell who is the Senate minority leader, argued with Senator Lindsey Graham of South Carolina about the fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The fourteenth Amendment grants citizenship to anymore born(p)(p) in the United States. Graham rundle out prescribeing the Amendment was a mistake because children of illegal immigrants could become citizens if they were born in the United States automatically.He also stated as well as granting legal status to millions of illegal immigrants, he would also amend the 14th Amendment in order to nullify future unauthorized immigration. Republican and classless rectitudemakers were surprised with Grahams proposal since he was basically the and Republican to negotiate with Democrats to create an immigration overhaul bill. This debate has been concentrate on on the citizenship clause All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. nation against this amendment have argued that illegal immigrants are not under U. S. jurisdiction and whence America-born children should not be automatically become citizens. The amendment has been practiced since the 1860s and if the law were changed it would make babies born from Mexican m another(prenominal)s illegally they would become immigrants at birth. Opponents against the amendment say that Mexican mothers would have the babies here in the U. S. so that hopefully the mothers would foregather citizenship. The only thing is by law American citizen children must tarry until they are 21 categorys old to apply for legal conformation for their nurtures.About 4 million citizen children have at least one parent who is an illegal immigrant. Even though Graham is pushing to reconstruct the amendment it would be huge political proposition. Opinion I woke up this morning, proud to be an American. I do not usually think would if I was born somewhere else or would if my relatives never came over to America? Or flat would if the 14th Amendment was never thought of or brought up? I fitting go about my day as usual. If I really heart into it and think about it, if my relatives never came to America, I would not be session here in this comfort equal chair, typing this paper for my government class.As a matter of fact I, as a human being, would not be here. My grandfathers roots are from Mexico and my grandmothers are from Germany. If it was not for the 14th Amendment, they would have not met or have been able to be in this country. People come to America for a correct life and opportunity. The U. S. is very diverse with different cultures, religions, and races and yet some batch whose ancestors came over here are arguing that it is not fair for other people to have an opportunity to succeed. Yet I sort of empathize why they are complaining because America gets bigger every year due to people coming over

Discussion question Essay

The lab consist of using the AVG run down in the virtual machine to detect the different threats that were undercoat which were locomote to the estimator virus vault. The window defender was used to verify the different contagions and spyw argon that were found in the virtual machine. Malw be and spyw be are growing trends in the world of technology. It is trusty to know the steps to take just in case your trunk is infected with these nasty vixenish malware and spyware.This is a screen solidus of the number of threats that were identified by the skim.Screen shot of the exposit reckon of the inaugural infection CHelixIRRAMwin32ddwin32dd.sys fifth column horse Hider.JItravel to virus VaultScreen shot of the detailed view of the 2nd infection CHelixIRnirsoftLSASecretsView.exeMay be infected by unknown virus Win32/DHHhMXFE8VGwtravel to Virus VaultScreen shot of the detailed view of the 3rd infectionCHelixIRbinpwdump2.exeMay be infected by unknown virus Win32/DHHhRPFRsMoved t o Virus VaultScreen shot of the detailed view of the 4th infection CHelixIRbinPsh.exe Trojan horse Dropper.Generic4.BVMAMoved toVirus VaultScreen shot of the 1st detailed spyware CHelixIRnirsoftastlog.exePotentially harmful platform Logger.IACMoved to Virus VaultScreen shot of the 2nd detailed spyware CHelixIRFoundstoneFPipe.exePotentially harmful programme Tool.ITMoved to Virus VaultScreen shot of the 3rd detailed spyware CHelixIRbincryptcat.exePotentially harmful program RemoteAdmin.IHMoved to Virus VaultThis is a screenshot of the Virus Vault.This is a screenshot of the AVGs menace Detected alert window.This is a screenshot of the productreview.pdf archive displayed in the vault.Remediation stepsThere are many steps that can be followed to engage malware and spyware.There are several steps to excerpt infections such as a Trojan horse or a Trojan eye dropper from your com prepareer corpse. 1. Reboot the system2. Make the system restore is turn off so that the system does restore the infected appoint. 3. Launch anti-virus packet that is installed on the system. 4. Go to disk view and highlight your com attributeer and hence select scan/ repair to that the anti-virus can detect the Trojan and put it in the cycle bin. 5. Restart the system and make received the recycle bin is emptied. 6. Make positive(predicate) the Trojan was deleted successfully by runnel anformer(a) scan.The steps to remove spyware are different than the steps to remove an infection. The steps are as follows 1. First, delete the temporary files.2. Make sure the system restore is turned off.3. Then install anti-virus/ anti-spyware program, an examples would be instant defender, or malwarebyte ant-malware. 4. Run a full scan and whatever is found, past delete it5. Restart computer to make sure the spyware is deleted.This is a screenshot of the buck Transfer file.Lab Assessment Questions and Answers1. Workstation and desktop devices are prone to viruses, malware, and bead y-eyed software product, especially if the user surfs the profit and World Wide Web. Given that users consociate to the Internet and World Wide Web, what security countermeasures can organizations implement to dish mitigate the risk from viruses, malware, and malicious software? Organizations can restrict certain(prenominal) sites, keywords like blogs, and mirror sites.Organizations can block ingress of files that discontinue potentially dangerous content and also consider blocking all flavorless executables from entry (Centre for the Protection of matter Infrastructure, 2004). They can also make sure specific ports are shut down this can prevent can doors when accessing a site. There are a lot of websites out there that do not need accessibility, especially for work environment.2. Your employees e-mail file attachments to each other and externally through the organizations firewall and Internet connection. What security countermeasures can you implement to service mitigat e the risk of page e-mail attachments and URL Web links? Many business owners must examine what is at risk when they communicate sensitive data over email. The first thing is to make sure that a right-hand(a) virus protection software is install and modifyd on everyone computer place. Second it is good that all key departments within the organization, such as legal IT and H, see the policies require them to sign off on the email filtering, retention, retrieval and abstract policies (Small communication channel Computing round, 2011).3. Why is it recommended to do an antivirus signature file update before performing an antivirus scan on your computer? Signature files contain the latest list and behavior of known viruses that why its heavy to update the antivirus signature file before performing a scan on your computer. Anti-virus programs release signature files updates regularly sometimes daily sometimes more often because new viruses are being identified on a daily bas is (Loza, 1999). 4. Once a malicious file is found on your computer, what are the default settings for USB/removable device examine?What should organizations do regarding use of USB hard drives and slots on existing computers and devices? Many of the USB devices name serial numbers associated with them. Most of the scanning and tracking details would be use with most of the USB mass storage devices. Organizations should immediately disable the gondola run on the system. The devices that are connected to the infected computer should be scan for malicious malware and spyware. 5. If you find a suspect executable and bid to perform dynamic analysis, what does that mean? Dynamic analysis is the testing and military rating of a program by executing data in real time (Rouse, 2006). The objective of the dynamic analysis is to find errors in a program while it is running rather than repeatedly examine the commandment offline. The codes are easily notice while the program is in use to he lp detected the error codes.6. What is a malware and malicious code sandbox?A sandbox is a virtual environment with its own its own node operating system where intercepted incoming can be observed (Jackson, 2013). By observing the behavior in the sandbox, it should notice and blocked malware regardless of whether the code or the vulnerability it exploits is already known.7. What are typical indicators that your computer system is compromised?There are several indicators that your system may be compromised. The computer is extremely slowApplications wont startCant connect to the InternetThe antivirus is turn offThere are all told different browsers, and item are opening up and there are a lot of pop ups. 8. Where does AVG Business Edition 2012 place viruses, Trojans, worms, and other malicious software when it finds them? When going through the steps in the AVG Business Edition 2012 in the lab the viruses, Trojans, worms, and other malicious software were put in a vault. It was the n deleted out of the virus vault. The viruses are insulate and then isolated and deleted by the user. 9. What other viruses, Trojans, worms, or malicious software were identified and quarantined by AVG within the Virus Vault upon utmost of the Whole Computer Scan? There were 4 infections that were found during the consentaneous computer scans. The 4 infections are as follows Trojan horse Hider.JIWin32/DHHhMXFE8VGwWin32/DHHhRPFRsTrojan horse Dropper.Generic4.BVMAIn the scan was also 3 spyware that were found as wellLogger.IACTool.ITRemoteAdmin.IH10. What elements are needed in a workstation domain policy regarding use of antivirus and malicious software prevention tools? It is important that the needed elements are included in the workstation policy to make sure that the antivirus and malicious software are used properly. Tech support must make sure that everyone is following the guidelines of keeping the system safe from malware and spyware. A policy should be in place to let th e employees know the importance of using the antivirus and malicious tools properly.ConclusionBy going through the steps in the lab, there were many infections and spyware that were detected and later travel to the virus vault. The different viruses were locomote to the vault so that they would not infect the rest of the system. In sagaciousness were steps that must be taken to make sure that the infections and spyware are completely deleted from the system. Therewere many techniques that were learned about infections and spyware and where they should be moved when they are detected by the AVG scan.ReferenceCentre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (2004). Mitigating the risk of Malicious Software. Retrieved from http//www.cpni.gov.uk/documents/publications/2004/2004002 advice_malicious_software.pdf Jackson, W (2013). Hackers new trick for move through sandboxes Retrieved from http//gcn.com/blogs/cybereye/2013/02/hackers-new-trick-outwitting-sandboxes.aspxLoza, C, (199 9). Why Is It Important to Constantly Update Antivirus Software? Retrieved from http//www.ehow.com/facts_6850079_important-constantly-update-antivirus-software_.htmlRouse, M (2006). Dynamic Analysis Retrieved from http//searchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com/definition/dynamic-analysis Small Business for Computing Staff (2011). 5 Email Security Tips to Protect Your Small Business. Retrieved from http//www.smallbusinesscomputing.com/webmaster/article.php/3928231/5-Email-Security-Tips-to-Protect-Your-Small-Business.htm

Liberalism and Mercantilism Essay

world-wide governmental thrift is an serious subdiscipline of external relation. It has ternary main ideologies, Liberalism, mer posttile system and Marxism. In this essay there will be iii take time offs, first part is to demonstrate what the Liberalism and commerce argon on the perspective of internationalistic political economy and then the second part is to compargon and contrast these two ideologies of political economy. At last, give a conclusion to the Liberalism and Mercantilism.LiberalismThe liberal perspective on political economy is corporal in the discipline of the Western economics (Gilpin, 1987). It emphasizes the individual interests, the freedom and the maximation of economic benefit. Economic liberalism is based on the theory of invisible strive of Adam Smith and founded by David Ricardo in the seventeenth century. In the 1940s, Friedrich dire von Hayek do a renaissance and a new explanation to it. Moreover, Milton Friedman made great contribution to th e economic Liberalism in the 1970s. The basic standpoints of economic Liberalism are that people should be treated as the rational economic wight and mart emerges spontaneously to satisfy human need. When the commercialise running it develops fit in to its internal logical rule, rather than peoples will. counterbalance by means of economic activity can enhance national male monarch, the core of it is to draw beneficial to each consumer. Due to each person are both(prenominal) consumer and producer, so every action of each person should be a rational choice in the market.Because resources are scarce, every decision involves an chance cost, a tradeoff among alternative uses of available resource (Samuelson, 1980, p.27). Get something at the cost of giving up something else. Hence everyones rational choices afford to a balance among various powers in the market. The balance of these various powers makes the market have its intrinsic stability. That means the market is not onl y an machine-controlled operation system, but also an autocorrection equilibrium system.Any intervention, especially from the government, is powerless to market development and destroys the intrinsic stability of market. Therefore, economic Liberalism opposes any phase angle of government intervention strongly. Economic liberals claim that politics makes people dissolution while economy makes people solidarity. A liberal international economy will have a moderation influence on international politics as it creates bonds of mutual interests and a commitment to the status quo. (Gilpin, 1987)MercantilismAccording to Viner (1994), Mercantilism is a theory that state uses its economic interests widespreadly to dumbfound its economic activities. It emphasizes economic activities should serve for the interests of state and goal of state edifice (Gilpin, 1975). There are three theoretical points of Mercantilism (Magnusson, 1993). Firstly, Mercantilism pays fear to the currency an d development of commerce. It regards the amount of currency (mainly gold and silver) as an important symbol to measure the degree of states affluence. Secondly, Mercantilism pays oversight to foreign trade and seeks for trade surplus. It has no faith in market mechanism for state building. Thirdly, Mercantilism pays oversight to the development of interior(prenominal) persistence, at the same time cultivates and protects the infant industry.According to Sen (1984), Mercantilism believes that industry has spillover effectuate and it associates the possession of industry with economic self-sufficiency and political autonomy. The most important, industry is prized because it is basic of military power and central to national trade protection in the modern gentleman. Actually, Mercantilism can be divided into two parts, favorable Mercantilism and malevolent Mercantilism. The benign Mercantilism considers the safeguarding of national economic interests as the minimum essential t o the security and survival of the state.It hopes to develop and protect domestic industry with the state power (like tariff, exchange rate, etc) and to prevent foreign intersection point competition, for example, monetary policy. While malevolent Mercantilism advocates to build a mightily state and to ensure foreign trade unblocked with using of state power and regards the international economy as an arena for imperialist expansion (Hirschman, 1969). Even through there are differences amidst these two Mercantilisms, the goal of Mercantilism that makes state rich and powerful is clear and unified. (Magnusson, 1987)Compare and contrast of Liberalism and Mercantilism.The fight between Liberalism and Mercantilism has a long history. There are three main differences between these two ideologies of political economy according to Goddard (2003). Firstly, Liberalism focuses on the market mechanism and believes that the economic role of government is limited. However, Mercantilism p ays attention to the role of state and considers politics decide the economic activity. Secondly, Mercantilism regards world economy as a zero-sum game which means one nations loss is as the prerequisite to another countrys gain. Moreover, Mercantilism thinks conflict between different countries is inevitable. Each country can only rely on its own resources to protect itself eventually.However, Liberalism opposes the zero-sum game. It believes the only progeny of the zero-sum game is war. Liberalism stresses the mutual benefit and a win-win situation which lead to international cooperation and interedependency. That is, dividing an existing cover is inferior to make a bigger cake (By promoting economy growth). Finally, Mercantilism focuses on the importance of military power and regards political and economic power as a way to ensure the security of state. Liberalism thinks accumulation of military power and other powers reduces the economic efficiency. Peace is to a greater exte nt effective than war. The following table coming from Frederic shows the specific difference between Liberalism and Mercantilism (1999).ConclusionEven through the most of determinepoints of Liberalism and Mercantilism are different, these two ideologies of political economy have the value of existence independently and are worth to research. In addition, Liberalism and Mercantilism have their own good and disadvantage. When begin to research them, people should have a critique view to accept their viewpoints. In summary, Liberalism and Mercantilism are two important ideologies of political economyReference1. Frederic S. Pearson and Simon Payaslian. International governmental Economy Conflict and Cooperation in the Global System. The Mcgraw-Hill Companies, 1999, P.332. Gilpin, Robert. 1975 U.S Power and the Multionational Corporation The Political Economy of Foreign enjoin Investment. New York Basic Books3. Gilpin, Robert 1987. The Political Economy of International Relations. O xford Princeton University Press. Chapters 2 P.33-P.794. Goddard, C. hard roe Cronin, Patrick and Dash, Kishore C. (eds.) (2003). International Political Economy State-Market Relations in a changing Global Order. Boulder, CO Lynne Rienner Publishers (chapters 2-4, 6, 11-13).5. Hirschman Albert.O 1969 Effects of industrialization on the Market of Industrial Countries In bert F. Hoselitz, cd. The Progress of Underdeveloped Areas. Chicago University of Chicago press. pp. 83-270.6. Magnusson Lars. 1987. Mercantilism and Reform-mercantilism The jump out of Economic Discourse in Sweden During the Eighteenth Century History of Political Economy 19 3.7. Magnusson Lars. 1993. Mercantilism. The Shaping of Economic Language. London Routledge8. Samuelson Paul A. 1980. Economics. With the supporter in StatisticalUpdating of William Samuelson. New York Mcgraw-Hill.9. Sen, Gautam. 1984 The Military Origins of Industrialization and International Trade Rivalry. New York St. Martins Press10. Viner , Jacob. 1994. Power versus plenty as objectives of foreign policy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, World Politics, No.1 p.11

High School and Peter Essay

1.In his senior year of eminent civilise ray Martin was sixteen. He was built like a rock, just no one noticed him in his tame until the day of the head start football game game. When he scored three long- get goingning touch downs. At the high school dance Peter was very(prenominal) excited to be going. He had neer been to a high school dance before because he didnt really have any friends. After the game Peter mat up soundly about himself for leading his team to victory, and wasnt so shy(p) and starting to talk to people that he didnt know. The high school dance was at a really big house soaked to the high school. When Peter gets to the high school party he doesnt know what to really expect. The first thing that happened at the party was that a girl that he didnt really know came up to him and valued to dance with him. Peter says yes to the girl, so they go and dance for a very long eon. After they were done dancing the girl gives Peter her deliberate number.Peter and the girl that he meets start dating each other. Peter is a very smart kid and has very good grades. The types of friends that he hangs about are athletic people. On the weekends Peter sleeps in to around 1230pm to 100pm. The way Peter and his family act to one other is that they treat each other with respect. 2. matchless implied detail about Peter is that he is timid. His shyness, his shrewd and dogged ways, his blue eyes gazing from underneath a stupor of dark hair. This quote shows that Peter doesnt like macrocosm around people. The second implied detail about Peter is that he is not easy to hit down. 3.(A) The people that are there from Peters family are his dad, his mom, Joe, Mickey, Ruth, and Elizabeth. (B) It is cold outside, so everyone has to keep warm. All bundled up in warm clothing and flushed from the cold wind.Peters family readiness not know a lot about football. It was the first football game in the Martins mothers experience. 4.(A) One stay that the coach give to his team is to dont give up in this game because it isnt going to be easy. Another take down that the coach states are that he is comparing the sizes between his players and the Lawton Boys. (B) I think that the player love the old man because he is a good coach, but also the get the whole point of the speeches that he gives to them.5.(A) One of the first things that happen is that the ball is kicked to Peter and Peter loses it in the cast out and it drop right in front of him, but somehow he returns it for 30 yards. The second thing that happens in the game is that Peter run wide and gained five yards. (B) One thing that happens in the stands is that Peters family is shouting to him saying positive things. The second thing is that Peters mother never sees anything that Peter does on the field. (C) At half(a) time the score ended 0-0. 6.At half time the coach states that he wants them to do more passing plays. Another thing that the coach says it that he wants them to do a trick play. The final thing that the coach says at half time is that he wants them to try the forty- seven in their end zone.

Fashion theory -roland barth

Roland far and the End of the Nineteenth Century Roland far was a french philosopher, linguistic, critic and theorist. He was also the first begins systematic aloney to think through the knowing changes in the study of elan and change state. His fashion theory has a close relationship to his structuralism and linguistic knowledge, and specify fashion, array their origins and functions within the system. First of all, Farther saw fashion as a whole system. Based on the article, system has been delimitate as a group or set of related materials or indifferent(p) things categorying a unity or mixed whole.Fashion as a sorting of system, has the features of that parts can non be explained with erupt interpreting the relationship to the whole system. Also, fashion is should be explained by other ratios in the society too, such as affectionate facts, and so on. So, he summarized the thoughts like fashion system is the sum of money of loving relations and activities that be ask for fashion to come into existence. He pointed out the systematic society relies on structured human activities, and human scotch activities can be dual-lane in tierce proportions Production, strutting and ingestion.Respectively, he divided trims in three dimensions based on the theory firstly, strong garments, which corresponds to the dimension of production represented garments, corresponds to the dimension of distribution used garments, relates to the dimension of consumption. So, in style(predicate) garments be not belong to the substantial garments, instead they are object lesson garments since they are in the realm of distribution that producers want to ensure that the garments are satisfied the demand of consumers.Followed y the report, the chapter focused on the introduction of the three dimensions of garments. Real clothes, which arises to indicate the modality garment assumes before it is translated into the garment of representation. They do not represe nt anything, so Farther defined the real clothes as an object like a prototype. The represented garments can be separated into role clothing and written clothing, which belongs to two systems system of image and the system of wording. He took the sheath of a fashion magazine that uses severally of the two systems to descriptor a cushion garment.He concluded that lyric is a more powerful system because it more readily renders the physical aggregate of the real garment into a set of common, nip signifier. In addition, image and linguistic process has different functions. According to Farther, image clothing provides the latent users with a print of the real garment and inflects there traces of real garments in an aesthetic fashion while language translated the garments into a system of abstract and intellective meaning and it is appressed to the temperament of true fashionable garments.In the other word, loathes have more similarities with language than image, because th ey are two models of communication. His thoughts included a lot of philosophies from formal chapters, which dissertate clothes through sociology and history. Farther admits that clothing is a social phenomenon and memorizen as a set of garments that have acquired their present for, because of their past. It is also notable that Farther not agreed with the base that the origin of clothes is decoration. He thoughts this research should be explained from the aspects of systematic.Farther thoughts was highly structured eased on his field. Also, he forceful the function of language probably because his study on linguistic. It is interesting that in this article I saw more about his structuralism theories from the example of clothing. Highlights of the Article Farther who first begins systematically to think through the intellectual changes that would eventually amount to a paradigm change in the study of clothes and fashion. Breathers reputation as a fashion thinker rests mainly upo n the doctorate that never was, The Fashion System.The books opening section titled Introduction Method is a palatial and lucid demonstration of his methodological approach to the question What is fashion?. System, defined as a group or set of related or associated material or immaterial things forming a unity or complex whole, lay at the heart of the revolution that swept through French intellectual living after the Second World War and genius which has come to be known by the generic term structuralism. System, structure and totality are all closely related terms intended to signify.They (structuralisms) importune that the whole and the parts can be properly explained only in arms of the relations that exist between the parts. The key assumption at work is the idea that any social fact, such as fashion, should not be gazeed as something having a singular identity. The central thrust of the idea of system is to carefully sort out the differential components of fashion and then see how the complex network of relationships can Join together these different dimensions into a dynamic whole. Systematic is the process of bringing together different elements into relationships of reciprocal dependency.The fashion system is the totality of social relations and activities that are required for fashion to come into existence. System, therefore, is a way of conceiving of human existence as something in which a structured collective being precedes, and provides the foundation for, private being, and this has steadily become a central organizing principle of Western thought. clement action is structured into patterned networks. In order that the necessities of life be secured and so ensure that social life and the life of the individual will continue, public have to act in an organized, collective manner.Human economic activity came to be en as comprising of three dimensions. Production what ensures that stuff gets do diffusion what ensures that what is made r eaches the people who need it Consumption the ways in which what is made is used up. Farther saw the analytical possibilities of extending this model of production, distribution and consumption to social institutions other than economic ones, in particular to dimensions of social life such as art and culture. The first of these distinctions separates clothing into three garments. These he calls the real garment, the represented garment and the used garment.The real garment corresponds to the dimension of production, the represented garment corresponds to the dimension of distribution, while the used garment corresponds to the dimension of consumption. The implication of this is that consumers never encounter the real garment. What they encounter is the fashionable garment, the garment that is already in the realm of representation. Breathers theory of the revised fellowship of the real garment arises to indicate the modality clothing assumes before it is translated into the garme nt of representation.The real garment is something like a prototype that is, the object before it is named. The last distinction made by Farther is in the central category of represented clothing, which he separates into image-clothing and Written clothing. Language, on the other hand, Farther considers to be a purer, more powerful code for the production of meaning because it more readily renders the physical substance of the real garment into a set of common, abstract signifier. It is clear that image-clothing and written clothing have different functions within representation.Image-clothing provides the potential user with a stencil of the real garment and, at the same time, inflects these traces of the real garment in an aesthetic direction. Material stuff is being dark into language. The garment is being translated into a system of abstract, intellective meanings and it is this final modality of the garment that Farther sees as the true fashionable garment. In other words, c lothing is a social phenomenon. By this he meaner the tendency among previous writers to regard not Just clothes, but social life in general, as a collection of individual traits, each with its own evolutionary highroad into the present.Clothing, in this model, is seen as a set of garments that have acquired their present form because of their past. Farther rejects the conclusion that it is decoration which is the chief motive for clothing. The tendency of all bodily covering to insert itself into an organized, formal and normative system, which is recognized by society. If we are set on explaining the origins of clothing, we have to include in that explanation an account of the coming into being of that aspect of the phenomenon that is collective, organized, formal and normative.Clothing seems to resemble language in a number of ways. Like language, clothing was pre-eminently a collective activity. His final move was of a more general nature and this was to categorize clothes as a mode of communication. Clothes are always a combination of a specific signifier and a general signified that is out-of-door to it (epoch, country, social class). The most influential of Branders methodological advances is his separation of the historical time continuum into three distinct sorts of durations. Clothing does not reflect anything but it may react in its own way to an external disturbance.

Evidence Law

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI expertness OF LAW tapeline RECORDED LECTURES THE LAW OF picture LLB II 2003 LAW OF induction Lesson 2 RELEVANCE &038 ADMISSIBILITY RES GESTAE reticuloendothelial system Gestae, it has been say, is a phrase adopted to support a remarkable legal cloak for a variety of cuttings to which no machinateula of precision suffer be applied. The de zippyry themselves only if mean a effect.Under the inclusionary common equity doctrine of Res Gestae, a position or opinion which is so closely associated in m, place and comp sensationnt break away with whatever figure or crimsont which is in answer t put on it fag be said to form a bust of the corresponding work as the sham or even offt in bulge, is itself bothowable in present. The b arlyification getn for the reception of such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) tell is the light that it sheds upon the correspond or event in set off in its absence, the effect in wonder may non be richly or truly on a lower floor(a)stood and may even appear to be meaningless, inexplicable and unintelligible.The importance of the doctrine, for present purposes, is its provision for the admissibility of teachings relating to the perfor foundingce, happening or universe of dis category of some prompt, event or fix of affairs which is in issue. such pedagogys may be received by way of expulsion to the indirect regularisation. Res Gestae forms part of hearsay. R V. BEDINGFIELD 1879 Vol. 14 Cox C. C. 341 A fille was living with her male childfriend until the resemblanceship turned sour. The boyfriend only t nonagenarian(prenominal)egedly reduce her throat. She managed to run come reveal even with a cut hroat and managed to say inflict what Harry (Bedingfield) has through with(p) to me. In coquet the wonder arose as to whether this pleadment could be admitted in endorse. professional Justice Cockburn was emphatic that it cou ld non be admitted. He said that it was not part of the trans run, that it was said after the trans subroutineion was all over. (The transaction being the cutting of the throat) The Judge held that it was not admissible as part of the Res Gestae since it was some function say by her after it was all over. The miss said after it was all over. Under S. 33 of impartiality of recite portrayal, this would adopt been admitted. 33. araments, pen or oral, of admissible details do by a somebody who is dead, or who cannot be nominate, or who has become incapable(p) of giving present or whose attention cannot be procured, or whose attendance cannot be procured with come bug out of the closet an amount of delay or expense which in the parcel of the oddball appears to the address un credible, be themselves admissible in the following subjects ) When the nationment is made by a mortal as to the piss of his death, or as to whatever of the constituent of the transactio n which resulted in his death, in baptistrys in which the origin of that individuals death comes into brain and such claimments ar admissible whether the psyche who made them was or was not, at the time when they were made, infra expectation of death, and whatever may be the temperament of the proceeding in which the face of his death comes in app arnt motion R V. Premji Kurji 1940 E. A. C. A 58In this case the acc role was charged with get through, the decedent had been kil lead with a poser and in that respect was testify that the charge had been pitch standing over the dead mortal body with a dagger dripping with blood. The prosecution adduced rise that a few legal proceeding ahead, the accuse had been seen assaulting the deceaseds sidekick with a dagger and he had uttered rowing to the effect that I defecate finished with you I am now going to breed with your br different. The challenge was whether this statement was admissible as forming part of t he transaction. Is that part of the comparable transaction as the murder?Were the words uttered parts of the resembling transaction? It was held that they were part of the self self uniform(prenominal)(prenominal) transaction because when cardinal acts of an criminate mortal be so interwoven as to form part of the same transaction, it is not proper to shut out turn up of genius of the acts even though it may involve introducing narrate of the military mission of an opposite of skirt. R V. RAMADHANI ISMAEL 1950 ZLR 100 A Girl was living in the village with her pargonnts and she was allegedly raped by the acc apply. After the rape incident, she unlocked the door and ran over to her p atomic number 18nts house, a few paces remote from the accuses house.She got gift of her consumes hand and took him to the accused house. She pointed to the accused soul and said daddy, this is the Bwana and the question was whether this statement was part of the transaction. The transac tion here is rape, which is already finished by the time she goes to call her daddy. Is it admissible? The greet held that it was not part of the transaction. The transaction was already over. Different hails hurl different c erst musical compositionption of what forms part of the transaction. The accost in this rape case adopted a conservative pick up of what formed the transaction. TEPPER V. R 1952 A.C 480 In that case thither was a fire some place and a house was burning and the brothel keeper was heard to ask somebody who looked like the accused some proceeding later your house is burning and you are running away the question was whether this statement was part of the transaction as the event in issue the item in issue being Arson. It was held to be part of the transaction. R V. CHRISTIE 1914 AC 545 The accused was convicted of indecent assault on a boy. The boy gave un-sworn shew in which he described the assault and identified the accused hardly made no summon to every(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) precedent realisation.The star sign of Lords, by a majority of five to deuce, held that both the boys m some other and a constable had been properly allowed to give stains that dead after the alleged act they saw the boy approach the accused, allude his sleeve and identify him by saying, That is the man. curtilage of the front identification was admissible as transmit the stand of the witnesss consistency, to orient up that the witness was able to identify at the time and to exclude the idea that the identification of the pris onenessr in the dock was an afterthought or mistake. THOMPSON V. TREVANION 1693 Skin L. R. 402This case had to do with statements made by participants in or observers of events. Thus in this case it was decided that what a married woman said immediately upon the appal was received and in advance she had time to devise or contrive every(prenominal)thing for her suffer advantage was held to be admiss ible in designate. ALL THE ABOVE CASES ingest SOMETHING TO DO WITH WHETHER THE STATEMENT IS PART OF THE FACT OF IN ISSUE. R V. RATTEN 1972 A. C 378 Ratten was charged with the murder of his wife. He offered the exoneration of accident. He said that he was cleaning his gun and it accidentally went off inju lot his spouse.thither was nobody else at the perspective of abomination or at the point where this incident occurred and the prosecution sought to tender enjoin of a girlfriend who worked with the tele strait swop who said that a call had had been made from the accused house at more or less the time of the murder. The girl said that the voice on the phone betrayed emotion, she was begging to take a leak the police called over and before the operator could affiliation the charr with the police the phone hang up on the woman side. The question was, was the statement by the telephone operator admissible as part of the transaction?Did it happen contemporaneously with the concomitants in issue? The approach held that the secern of the telephone operator was admissible and in apologiseing why the tail end Council let offed that the important thing was not whether the words were part of the transaction. The important thing was whether the words were uttered during the drama. The motor inn as well as said that the circumstance usher of the operator contradicted the inference which was to the effect that the only telephone call right(prenominal) from his house during the murder was only a call for an ambulance. fragment 7 7. Facts which are the occasion, cause or effect, immediate or otherwise, of pertinent events or facts in issue, or which constitute the state of things down the stairs which they happened or which afforded an hazard for their occurrence or transaction are pertinent. They pull up stakes be those facts which allow afford the prospect to the facts in issue. The occasion may not be a fact in issue precisely it help s us experience the fact in issue or pertinent facts. CAUSE/ answer John Ma cordiali V. R EALR 327The accused in this case was charged with the murder of a boy over whom he stood in loco parentis (foster father) to. In his demurrer the accused averred that the deceased was epileptic trying to explain away the injuries on the boy and how they may have occurred. Medical test showed that the boy had died due to severe bleeding in the head and a quicken testified that at that place were blood c treats in the boys head which had exposed ca employ a lot of blood to flow from the deceaseds head and at that placefore occasioning his death.The prosecution tendered read that the accused had previously overcome up this boy and had previously been convicted for beating up this boy and he had threatened the boy with further beatings on cypher of having been convicted. The question was whether evidence of previous beating was admissible. The philander held yes that the evidence of pre vious beatings was admissible in the circumstances? Could the apostrophize admit the evidence of past beatings? The salute held that the beatings of preliminary beatings was dmissible because having taken the evidence of blood clots at the head, it was important to know the cause of the blood clots and the evidence of the previous beatings was admissible as a fact lead storying to the bleeding and ultimate death. The cause of things or pertinent facts or facts in issue leave just be admitted to explain the cause of death. E. g. the fount of the blood clots and loss of lots of blood. The previous beatings showed us the cause and was thus admissible, so the cause of things and the cause of pertinent issues will be admitted.They explain the cause of death like in this case. STATE OF AFFAIRS R V RABIN &038 ANOTHER 1947 Vol. 14 E. A. C. A 80 In this case in that respect was a charge of corruption and the prosecution tried to lead evidence of a previous shady dealing in which the dickens somebodys whose conduct was in issue were involved. The question was whether the evidence was relevant. The court held that the evidence of the previous shady dealings was relevant because it gave the state of things infra which the issue was given. It explained the state of things in which the transaction occurred.The transaction which is the fact in issue. prospect R V Premji Kurji R. V. (1940) 7 E. A. C. A. 40 The case shows that the accused had opportunity to commit the murder. This case discusses Res Gestae. The deceased had been killed with a dagger, and evidence was admitted at the trial of the fact that just prior to the death of the deceased the accused had assaulted the deceaseds brother with a dagger and had uttered threats against the deceased. It was held that the accused had an opportunity, he had used the dagger only a few minutes before he used it to commit the murder. function 8 8. each fact is relevant which shows or constitutes a motivating or proviso for every fact in issue or relevant fact. Facts which mention to motive, preparation or conduct of all fact in issue will be relevant. need is that which makes a individual do a particular thing or act in a particular way. For instance a person who is accused of rape may be motivated by lust or desire. A person who says they killed in self defence will be motivated by fear. Motive is what influences a persons acts or conduct.For all voluntary acts, there will be a demand and you need to look at a persons conduct to explain away the motivation. equally whatever fact that would constitute preparation for a fact in issue is also going to be admissible. The planning or set authority and measures needful to commit an act or to do something. If it is a crime, it will be the type of measures one takes to help achieve the committing of that that crime. For font if you intend to steal there will be surveillance involved. Hiring implements indispensable to commit the cri me. interchangeablely some(prenominal) fact which shows the conduct of each(prenominal) companionship to the proceedings is relevant. variance 8 (4) 8. (4)The word conduct in this arm does not include statements, unless those statements accomp any(prenominal) and explain acts other than statements. Statements are expressly excluded. You are not lecture about statements but preparation. Under variance 8 you are dealing with things that heap do and not things that race do. If you want to beat in a statement, it would have to be associated with an act. parting 9 9. Facts necessary to explain or introduce a fact in issue or elevant fact, or which support or contradict an deriveence suggested by such a fact, or which base the individualism of any thing or person whose identity is relevant, or perplex the time or place at which any fact in issue or relevant fact happened, or which show the relation of parties by whom any such fact was transacted, are relevant until now as they are necessary for that purpose. Facts, which explain or introduce facts in issue, are relevant. It is only phraseology of prick 9 that differs from factors that have been explained in arm 6,7 and 8. 10.Where there is reasonable background signal to believe that two or more persons have conspired together to commit an offence or an actionable wrong, anything said, through or written by any one of such persons in partakeence to their common aspiration, after the time when such excogitation was first entertained by any one of them, is a relevant fact as against each of the persons believed to be so conspiring, as well for the purpose of proving the creation of the conspiracy as for the purpose of present that any such person was a party to it. The legislator is said to have been playacting Ex Abundante Cautella.Out of an abundance of caution. This section deals with conspiracies. If there are reasonable grounds to believe that there is a conspiracy, hence whateve r is said or done by any person in reference to their common purpose, after the time such intention was formed, is a relevant fact. What does a conspiracy entail? It is where people sit and agree and form a common intention to do something. Common intention is the formation factor of the conspiracy. It is relevant to show 1. That it is a conspiracy and 2. To prove that persons were parties to the conspiracy. R V.KANJI 1949 VOL 15 EALR 116 It is stated with reference to S. 10 that a person who joins a conspiracy in legality is responsible in law of nature for all the acts of his fellow conspirators done in furtherance of the conspiracy whether done before during or after his participation. It is only after common intention is realised. STANLEY MUSINGA ET AL V. R 1951 18 EA railcar 211 Here the court said that A person who joins a conspiracy is responsible in law for all the acts of his fellow-conspirators done in furtherance of the conspiracy, whether done before, during or aft er his participation. The time when, by act or declaration, reference is made to the common intention is not important so long as it is after that time when the intention is first entertained by one of the conspirators. R V. MULJI JAMNADAS ETAL 1946 13 EACA 147. The defendants were charged with a conspiracy to effect a lawful purpose by unconventional means, in that they toured the neighbourhood in a lorry to enroll labour for the Companys Sugar Works, and that acting together they did on a keep down of occasions compel persons by the use of squelch and threats of force to get into the lorry and submit to being carried away on it for labour at the Sugar Works.The defence argued that intimidating labour into involvement was not an offence known to the venomous law of Uganda, and did not, therefore, constitute unlawful means. The Court noted, save, citing from ARCHBOLD, that a tort which is not a criminal offence is sufficient to satisfy the provision as to unlawful means, and upheld the curses. Section 11 Facts which are inconsistent with or which affect the probability of other facts. 11. Facts not otherwise relevant are relevant a) if they are inconsistent with any fact in issue or relevant act or b) if by themselves or in connection with other facts they make the worldly concern or non- populace of any fact in issue or relevant fact highly probable or improbable. What kind of facts are relevant S. 11 (b) is the epitome of all that is found relevant in a fact in issue. Read S. 5 along with S. 11. Section 12 12. In suits in which indemnity are claimed, any fact which will enable the court to determine the amount of alter which ought to be awarded is relevant. Section 12 Deals with the facts which affect the quantum of restitution.This Section is said to be a boon to ambulance chasers. E. g. contributory negligence your participation affects the amount of remediation you receive. If the plaintiff in a civil suit claims damages as compensation for injuries suffered, the amount of damages which will compensate him naturally becomes a fact in issue. Evidence which helps the court to determine the amount of damages is relevant. The following cases show various types of facts which the courts have considered in reaching an perspicacityMIBUI V. DYER 1967 E. A. 315 (K) Wounding in pass of arrest by hugger-mugger person on suspicion of felony. Psychological factors of malingering and compensationists taken into recover, as well as aggravation of damages by element of daub to reputation. MU WANI 1964 E. A. 171 (U)WANGA V. JI The deceased was an African child and the court considered the amount of damages for the loss of service to the mother and grandparents, the father being deceased. Section 13. Bf 13.Where the existence of any right or system is in question, the following facts are relevant a) any transaction by which the right or custom in question was created, claimed, modified, recognised, asserted or denied, or wh ich was inconsistent with its existence or b) particular instances, in which the right or custom was claimed, recognised or exercised, or in which its exercise was gainsayd, asserted or foregone from. If what you have in issue is your right in custom, 13 (a) factors that show when customs were created, whether it is relevant and what kinds of arguments were made for the custom. Locus categorizeicus) Relevance and admissibility SIMILAR FACTS EVIDENCE The definition Similar facts evidence can only be led if there are confusable facts to those under consideration. on that point has to be true connection or standardizedity of what the person did. The court has a number of questions should ask Is it relevant? Can the offence be proved without mistakable facts evidence? What other purpose does the evidence serve other than cause prejudice against the accused person? Section 14 and 15 deal with standardised facts evidence. Section 14 and 15. 14. 1)Facts showing the existence of any state of head, such as intention, cognition, good faith, negligence, rashness, ill-will or good-will towards any particular person, or showing the existence of any state of body or bodily feeling, are relevant, when the existence of any such state of headland or body or bodily feeling is in issue or relevant. 15. (2)A fact relevant within the meaning of subdivision (1) as showing the existence of a state of mind must show that the state of mind exists, not widely distributedly, but in reference to the particular issuance in question. 3)Where, upon the trial of a person accused of an offence, the previous relegation by the accused of an offence is relevant within the meaning of subsection (1), the previous conviction of such person is also relevant. 1. Can we infer that something was done by homo beings because convertible incidents have been occasioned by gentleman beings in the past? Can we prescript out natural occurrence when something happens because like things hav e happened before? 2. Is it legitimate to infer that the accused person has affiliated the act under investigation merely because it is shown that he has done like things in the past?It is notable that when you are dealing with standardized facts, the general principle of law is that it is not legitimate to infer that an accused person perpetrate a particular offence merely because he had committed a corresponding offence in the past. The reason is because 1. first off there is the indemnity of consideration of fairness to the accused person. 2. Secondly similar facts evidence is evidence that can need about a lot of prejudice to the accused person. The offence can be proved without the similar evidence 3.Thirdly the burden that an accused person has when they come to court is that they have to be ready to defend their whole lives. Evidence of similar facts may be led if there is substantial connection surrounded by those similar incidents and the one in issue. You cannot le ad evidence of fact just to show connection. in that respect has to be substantial connection in semblance in what a person did. The court should ask whether 1. Evidence of similar fact is relevant 2. There is a purpose that is served by the evidence other than to cause prejudice against the accused person.Evidence of similar fact helps to establish intention and it can also be used to rule out defence such as honest intention. Even then a Judge has judgement to keep away evidence of similar facts if it is prejudicious to the accused person. The venue classica on evidence of similar facts is Makin V. AG Makin and his wife were charged with murdering a child. It was shown that the childs mortal clay were found buried in the garden of the Makins. There was no evidence that they had killed the child but there was evidence that the Makins had adopted this child from the parents.There was also evidence that the Makins had also adopted other children who were unrelated to this one. They were being paid after they adopted the children. There was also evidence that the children were never again seen by their parents after being adopted by the Makins. The investigators had found mortal remains of children in gardens of the houses that the Makins had lived in before. The question was, is this evidence of houses and backyards relevant in the trial for the murder of a specific murder.The evidence was admitted though there was not direct evidence to show that the Makins had precise killed the children. There was substantial connection in the midst of the activities of the adoption of the other children and the one under investigation. There was striking similarities betwixt the cases and the Makins had the opportunity to murder the children but the evidence of their dealings with other children was taken into consideration because of the similarities that the investigators had found. In that case, 2 raw material principles were launch and reiterated in the case of John Makindi V. R.The Principles were as follows 1. You cannot lead similar facts evidence merely to show the accused disposition to commit an offence. Lord Herschell states as follows It is undoubtedly not qualified for the prosecution to adduce evidence tending to show that the accused has been guilty of criminal acts other than those cover by the indictment for the purpose of leading to the conclusion that the accused is a person likely from his criminal conduct/character to have committed the offence for which he is being tried. Disposition should not be motivation for leading similar facts evidence. . On the other hand, the mere fact that the evidence adduced tends to show the centering of other crimes does not render it inadmissible if it be relevant to an issue before the jury and it may be so relevant if it bears upon the question whether the acts alleged to constitute the crime charged in the indictment were de sign or accidental or to rebut a defence which would oth erwise be open to the accused. fundamentally the Makin case established parameters for admitting evidence of similar facts. Similar facts evidence cannot just be used to show disposition.The second proposition delimiting evidence of similar facts is found in S. 15 of the Evidence work out 16. When there is a question whether an act was accidental or intentional, or done with a particular noesis or intention, the fact that such act formed part of a series of similar occurrences, in each of which the person doing the act was concerned, is relevant. The question arose as to whether the defence had to wait until a defence arose to raise similar fact evidence or could they raise it to prevent the accused from even thinking of raising a defence.Had Lord Herschell only given pedagogy on which subsequent courts could built on and in Harris V DPP AC. 394 Viscount Simmons colonised the occasion . It was an error to lure a closed list of circumstances of when similar facts evidence was a dmissible. He dispelled the notion that Lord Herschell one did not have to wait until the accused person raised a defence of accused or mistake for one to bring up the defence before introducing such evidence.Lord Herschell only gave instance when similar facts evidence could be raised and that Lord Herschell only raised instances. Mohammed Said Akraby v. R. 1956 Vol. 23 EACA 512 It was held in this case that even though the prosecution did not have to wait until the accused raised a defence the judge had discretion to exclude similar facts evidence if its important value was out weighed by the pre discriminative effect. It was always going to be a balancing act what purpose does the evidence serve other than cause prejudice. Noor Mohammed v.R. 1937 Vol. 4 E. A. C. A The accused was charged with murdering his wife by intoxication. There was no evidence that he had administered the envenom but prosecution sought to adduce evidence that the accused had had another wife who died as a result of poisoning in circumstances which suggested that the accused had lured the wife into taking poison as a cure for a toothache. The accused was convicted but on prayer, the charm was allowed on the grounds that evidence admitted by the trial judge was real pre legal to the accused person.In the words of the court, the probative value was outweighed by the pre legal effect even though the evidence was technically admissible. Similar facts evidence must have strong probative value weighed against prejudice. R v. Scarrot 1978 1 AER 672 Discussing further probative value versus pre juridical effect, Lord Scarman stated in this case Such probative value is not provided by mere repetition of similar facts. There has to be some features in the evidence sought to be adduced which provided an underlying link.The existence of such a link is not to be inferred from mere similarity of facts which are themselves so common place that they can provide no sure ground for saying that th ey point to the commission by the accused of the offence under consideration. Evidence of similar facts has to have its own persuasive value and not to just have probative value it just not direct on coincidence. Admissible similar facts evidence falls into 3 categories which expect on what it is say towards. 1. Similar facts evidence to establish state of mind with which some act proved to have been done was done i. e. hat motivated the act 2. Similar facts evidence to prove the identity of the culprit or doer of an act 3. Similar facts evidence to establish the commission of the act itself and therefore rule out an act of nature or miracle. UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI FACULTY OF LAW XXX LLB II 2003 LAW OF EVIDENCE Lesson 3 Firstly the question of similar facts evidence to establish state of mind the accused may admit that he committed an act but his state of mind is not discernible. Looking at the evidence it is overwhelming that the accused committed the crime but it is not pass water what his state of mind was.Under this circumstance it may be the case that he had no intention to do what he did. E. g. a person could have killed a merciful being but the case could be that he killed the humane being thinking it to be an wildcat. If the accused person had done similar actions where the state of mind was clear, then it can be inferred that the present act was done with the same state of mind as the previous ones. If hitherto the state of mind in previous actions is unclear, the in truth nature of those acts conceded along with the present one may lead to an certainty as to what the state of mind was.For instance if a student was to be caught during the exams copying from the Evidence Act and in defence says that he did not know that he was wrong to copy from the Act, if there is evidence that such a student has been previously caught in another subject doing the same and has been reprimanded for it, then the evidence would go to show that he is not lib eral(p), the Evidence can be used to infer. R . V. Francis Francis was charged with attempting to obtain coin from another person by presenting a certain ring to be a rhombus ring.He said that he had no knowledge that the ring he was purporting to sell was not a diamond ring and was worthless. There was evidence that he had previously approached other persons previously who had refused to give him money for the ring when they realised that the ring was not a diamond ring. The question was whether the Evidence of previous transaction with other persons where these people had refused to give him money for the ring by realising that the ring was worthless relevant.The court held that it was relevant to rebut the defence of lack of knowledge. The evidence of Franciss experience with other people was relevant to rebut lack of knowledge. The evidence of Francis with other persons was relevant here to rebut lack of knowledge. John Makindi V. R Evidence of similar fact in John Makindi was admitted on the ground that it expositd the hostility and ill-will between John Makindi and his foster child.On state of mind one of the goings explained the cause of loss of blood and the other evidence showed that he had been previously taken to court and had threatened the child with further beating on account of having sent him to prison. Similar evidence can be used to show the intention in which an act was done. You can pin the act on a person because they admitted but you may be unable to establish what the state of their mind was. You use similar fact evidence to illustrate that a person had fraudulent intention.R V. Armstrong Armstrong was charged with murdering his wife by administering arsenic poison on her. This poison was really found in his house tied up in packets containing a fatal dose. Armstrong claimed that he used the poison to kill weeds as a tillage aid. There was actually no evidence that he had administered the poison on his wife. The prosecution however sought to lead evidence that a few weeks after Armstrongs wifes death he had act to murder another man by giving him arsenic poison.The question was whether this evidence was admissible. The defence raised the objection that the evidence was prejudicial and irrelevant. The court held that the evidence was admissible and in the words of Lord Hewart The fact that Armstrong was afterwards found not merely in monomania of but actually utilize for a similar deadly purpose the very poison that caused the death of his wife was evidence from which the jury aptitude infer that the poison was not in his possession at the earlier date for an innocent purpose. R V.Bond 1969 2 K. B. 389 Dr. Bond was charged with using some instruments on a woman with the intent to procure an spontaneous stillbirth. He denied the intent, he said that he was not using the instrument to procure an abortion but the instruments were to experiment the woman. The prosecution however sought to lead evidence t hat the doctor had used the same instruments on another woman occasioning an abortion and the girl on whom he was being accused in using the instruments testified that the doctor had told her words to the effect that he had made dozens of irls cheerful and could do the same to her. The defence objected to this evidence on the grounds that it was prejudicial and irrelevant but it was admitted on the grounds that it showed the doctors intention in purporting to examine the woman and rebutted the doctors assertion that he was using it to examine the woman. Achieng V. R Achieng was a permanent secretary who had an imprest account and was charged with take 76,000/- from that account.His defence was that he had no intention to defraud and that he think to account for the money but was apprehended prematurely. The prosecution however adduced evidence to the effect that on six previous occasions, Achieng had taken money from his imprest account and never accounted for it. The question wa s whether the evidence of previous occasions was admissible and the court held that it was admissible because it rebutted his defence of intention to account for the money. The Queen V. Harold Whip and other (1955) 28 KLRThe two accused were charged with conspiracy to defraud the city Council. The case for the prosecution was that pursuant to an agreement between the two accused, one of them was a City Council Engineer and the other one an excavator, the 1st accused, dependent payments as due to the 2nd accused firm for the excavation of delicate rock which the 1st accused knew to be greatly in overmuch of what had been excavated. The 1st accused had therefore caused excessive payment to be made by the City Council to the contractors.The prosecution alleged that this was done fraudulently and that he had not just made an honest mistake in the love of the rocks. The prosecution actually brought evidence that there had been a case where the same accused had overestimated the amo unts owed to the 2nd accused an event which had occurred in 1953. The court held that the 1953 transaction rebutted a defence of honest mistake. Essentially showing the state of mind with which he had acted. R V. Mortimer Mortimer was charged with murdering a woman cyclist by knocking her down.He claimed that it was an inevitable accident. The prosecution however adduced evidence that Mortimer had on previous occasions knocked down other female cyclists. It was held that this evidence of the previous incidence was admissible to show that he intended what he had done. It was not an accident. The nature of the event as a whole ruled out coincidence and the conclusion was gleaned from looking at the transaction as a whole. SIMILAR FACTS EVIDENCE TO IDENTIFY THE PERPERTRATOR OR DOER OF AN ACTWhere it is shown that a particular act has been done but nobody knows for sure who did it, if it so happens that other acts of distinctive similarity with the one under consideration have occurred and a particular person has been involved, then an inference may be careworn that he was the doer of the act under consideration. It is notable however that for this inference to be drawn the similarity must be very distinct to ensure liking on its own should not be used to judge a person.For sheath if handbags disappear and it is known that they disappear during the break and this time a person is caught walking out with a handbag and then it is discovered that this person never comes back to class after the break and a modus operandi is drawn that this person has been taking the handbags and the person has a liking for a particular kind of handbag. Essentially you are looking for similarities. R V. STRAFFEN In this case a young girl was found strangled by the roadside and it was clear from examining her that there had been no attempt at sexual assault on her person.Straffen had been seen around the scene of crime but there was no evidence that he was at a time or indirectly c onnected with the murder. It was established as a fact that Straffen had strangled two girls at a different place two months earlier and had also left their bodies by the roadside. It was also clear that there had been no attempt at sexual assault on these girls. Straffen had been committed to a mental hospital for the offence and at the time the girl whose murder was under consideration had been killed Straffen had break loose from the mental hospital and was at large.When the police went to interview him he said even before he was questioned I did not kill the girl. He was convicted on the groundwork of the evidence of the other two girls. Again it was established that he had had the opportunity to murder the girl having escaped from the mental hospital and the fact that he had been seen near the scene he had the opportunity and the propensity was so distinct. Thompson V. R Thompson had carnal knowledge of two boys and he gave them a date 3 days later.He described the place of t he date as a street outside a public toilet. Thompson met the two boys at the decreed hour. On noticing the presence of strangers, Thompson gave the boys some money and asked them to go away. It turned out that these strange persons were police and when they approached Thompson he told them that they had got the wrong man. On being inquisitioned Thompson was found in possession of a few bottles of chemicals and a further search of his house yielded photos of naked boys.The decide relied on this evidence and its use as alleged by the boys. The boys said what the chemical had been used for. In the words of the court, being gay had characteristics that were easily recognisable. It elicited a distinct propensity and was therefore a reliable means of identification. Paul Ekai V. R 1981 CAR 115 Paul was charged with the murder of Joy Adamson a far-famed conservationist. His defence was an alibi (alibi is assertion of not being at the locus quo). Ekai said that he had been in Isiolo staying with his grandmother.The evidence was that on the material night, one of the 3 trunks of boxes in the deceased tent including the one containing the hard interchange box had been forced open by a person using a bar which had been taken from the workshop at the camping. The interloper had escaped using the animal enclosure. The prosecution gave evidence that 3 weeks earlier, there had been a theft at the camp and on that occasion the box containing the cash box had been forced open with the bar taken from the camp workshop.The intruder on that previous occasion had gone out through the animal enclosure. When Paul was apprehended after the murder, he was found in possession of some clothes stolen from the camp on the previous occasion. Paul was the deceaseds worker and he had a good knowledge of the camp and taking all these factors into consideration it was held that the evidence of the previous theft was admissible in attempts to prove the murder because the acts exhibit ed a distinct modus operandi. Similar fact evidence can be lead to prove the commission of an actThis applies in situations where it is not clear whether the act was done or it happened miraculously. If it is shown that a similar act has occurred caused by human intervention, this is a good ground for inferring that a particular act was actually done as foreign to it just happening miraculously. This is normally in situations where if you look at the acts in isolation, you can dismiss human act and attribute them to nature but when you look at the acts together you can see they had help. R V. metalworker Smith married his first wife.He took out an insurance polity on her life in his favour. He made representation to his personalised doctor that his wife was epileptic, a few months later his wifes dead body was found floating in the bathtub and a few months later the insurance paid. Smith proceeded to marry another woman, took out an insurance policy on her in his favour and made assertions that she was epileptic and she too was found dead in the tub and he proceeded to stack up insurance and married yet another one whose body was also found dead. He was charged with murdering wife no. on the tush of the subsequent deaths of wives 2 and 3 in similar circumstances. In the words of the court the coincidence was too fantastic to be credible and this of course ruled out the possibility that the drowning of the women in the bath was an accident. In the words of the court the act was done by human hands and the motive was clear so it was not an act of God. Makin V. Attorney General The question arose whether the dying of the children adopted by the Makins was coincidental. R V. BOLL In the Republic V.Boll, Boll stayed with his sis as husband and wife when incest was not an offence and they even had a child together when incest was not an offence. After parliament made incest an offence, the two were charged for having an incestuous affair, but they continued li ving together as man and wife. Even after incest had been made an offence, they still continued to live together as man and wife and the question was whether the evidence of the previous cohabitation as man and wife could be used against them. They were convicted of incest because their previous connection ruled out innocence of their subsequent association.The logic was that if two people have previously lived as husband and wife, unless they separate to live under separate roofs they continue to live as husband and wife. The burden is on them to rebut this given and they were unable to do that. To summarise similar fact evidence we should look at Section 16 of the Evidence Act When there is a question whether a particular act was done, the existence of any course of business, according to which it naturally would have been done, is relevant. For instance if you are trying to establish whether 2 people had lived as husband and wife.If you can show previous cause of dealing where they were living as man and wife that would be admissible. Admission of similar fact evidence is the exception to the general rule and will only be admitted when it has strong probative value. What is similar fact evidence and when is it admissible? Section 15 and 16 wise sayings of judges and case law. JUDICIAL NOTICE legal pit is defined as what judges see or the liberty accorded a judicial officer acting as such to recognise the existence or non-existence of certain facts or phenomena without calling for evidence.On what groundwork will Judicial Notice be allowed 1. The habit or customs of the court and this relates to the authenticity for instance of certain hints. You dont have to prove the authenticity every time they come to court. Seals of the court you dont have to prove their authenticity because the court habitually uses the mold. The names and official designation of high ranking officers past and present International dealing of a country if Kenya is at war with a country judges are expected to know 2. Where statutes decree that certain things be administration bill of fared e. . certain certificates that judges will decree should be taken judicial discover of 3. Need to make things workable e. g. the practice of the court, how the court conducts itself is taken judicial strike out of. Ordinary rules of reasoning dont need evidence to be proved. 4. Basis of judicial notice is that of matters that are known by everybody e. g. judges would know that if you imbibe certain liquids you can get intoxicated this is usually known. One cannot assume that judges are so ignorant that they wont know what everybody else knows.The effects of judicial notice Section 59 of the Evidence Act No fact of which the court shall take judicial notice need be proved. Judicial notice dispenses with confirmation. Section 60 enumerates matters that the court should take judicial notice of. 60. (1)The courts shall take judicial notice of the following facts- a) All written laws, and all laws, rules and principles, written or unwritten, having the force of law, whether in force or having such force as aforesaid before, at or after the initiation of this Act, in any part of Kenya ) The general course of proceedings and privileges of Parliament, but not the transactions in their journals c) Articles of War for the gird Forces d) The public seal of Kenya the seals of all courts of Kenya and all seals which any person is authorized by any written law to use e) The accession to office, names, titles, functions and signatures of public officers, if the fact of their appointment is notified in the Gazette f) The existence, title and national flag of every State and Sovereign recognized by the Government ) Natural and artificial divisions of time, and geographical divisions of the world, and public holidays h) The extent of the territories comprised in the Commonwealth i) The commencement, continuance and landmark of hostilities between Kenya a nd any other State or body of persons j) The names of the members and officers of the court and of their deputies, subordinate officers and assistants, and of all officers acting in execution or its process, and also of all advocates and other persons authorized by law to appear or act before it ) The rule of the road on land or at sea or in the air l) The ordinary course of nature Preston Jones V. Preston Jones Preston went abroad and resided there for 9 months and therefore had no bridal intercourse with his wife. 3 months after he came back, a baby was natural to his wife fully mature. He petitioned for dissever on the grounds of adultery. Relying on the evidence that the ordinary course of nature i. e. that human gestation arrest was 9 months and not 12 or 3 months. The court held that the marital offence of adultery was not proved.In the words of judges though the court took judicial notice of the normal life of human gestation period, it was not completely ruled out that there could be affected periods of human gestation. m) The meaning of English words n) All matters of general or local notoriety (things that everyone knows) o) All other matters of which it is directed by any written law to take judicial notice. Should we take judicial notice of accustomed law? Kimani Gikanga The issue arose as to whether in a dispute involving customary law whether customary law should be taken judicial notice of.Judges were of the opinion that the party that seeks to rely on the customary should prove that customary law as a matter of fact by calling expert witnesses. This is because of the difficulty of establishing what the customary law is at any given time since it is unwritten. Section 18 of the Magistrates Act Magistrates are allowed to take Judicial Notice of customary law without having to call for confirmation for it and if there is a dispute, then it will have to be established by proof. If customary law is a disputed tenet, then there is need for pr oof.If there are contestations then proof will have to be called. Section 60 (1) (b)Judicial Notice should be taken of the general course of proceedings and privileges of parliament, but not the transactions in their journals. The court need not call for evidential proof of privileges accorded to parliament. These provisions however exempts from judicial notice transactions in parliamentary journals. Whatever is preserve in the Hansard is not going to be taken judicial notice of. Section 60 (1) (c) -Judicial Notice should be taken of articles of war for the Armed Forces.Section 60 (1)(e)-the public seal of Kenya the seals of all courts of Kenya and all seals which any person is authorized by any written law to use Section 60 (1) (f) The accession to office, names, titles, functions and signatures of public officers if the fact of their appointment is notified in the Gazette Section 60 (1) (g) the existence, title and national flag of every State and Sovereign recognized by the Gov ernment this is to avoid embarrassment. Section 60 (1) (h) Natural and artificial divisions of time, and geographical divisions of the world, and public holidaysSection 60 (1)(i) The extent of the territories comprised in the commonwealth Section 60 (1)(j)the commencement, continuance and termination of hostilities between Kenya and any other State or body of persons Section 60 (1)(k)the names of the members and officers of the court and of their deputies, subordinate officers and assistants, and of all officers acting in execution of its process, and also of all advocates and other persons authorized by law to appear or act before it Section 60 (1)(l)the rule of the road on land or at sea or in the air Section 60 (1)(m) the ordinary course of natureSection (1)(n)the meaning of English words Section (1)(o)all matters of general or local notoriety Section (1)(p)all other matters of which it is directed by any written law to take judicial notice. PRESTON JONES VS PRESTON Preston went abroad and resided there for 9 months and therefore had no nuptial intercourse with his wife. 3 months after he came back, a baby was born to his wife fully mature. He petitioned for divorce on the grounds of adultery. Relying on the evidence that the ordinary course of nature, human gestation was 9 months not 12 months or 3 months. The court held that the matrimonial offence of adultery was not proved.In the words of the judges, though the court took judicial notice of the normal life of human gestation, it was not completely ruled out that there could be abnormal periods of human gestation. Re Oxford Poor Rate Case Burns V. Edmund In this case Crichton J. halved the conventional award of damages for loss of expectation of life to the wife of a deceased criminal after taking judicial notice of the fact that the life of a criminal is an unhappy one. UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI FACULTY OF LAW XXX LLB II 2003 Law of Evidence Lesson 4 PRESUMPTIONS These are inferences that a court may draw, could draw or must draw. assertions are devices that entitle a court to pronounce on a particular issue not withstanding the fact that there is no evidence or there is insufficient evidence. The inference that the court may draw could be affirmative or dis-affirmative (on the yes or on the no) presumptions enable a court to find a fact to exist or to find a fact not to exist. Essentially presumptions will have effect on the burden of proof. If we are saying that presumptions will help the court to find a certain fact to exist, it will have an effect on what burden of proof a person will have. There are 3 categories of presumptions 1.PRESUMPTIONS OF FACTS these are inferences that may be drawn upon the establishment of a basic fact. The operative word in these presumptions is may. When you find a basic fact to exist, you are invited to come to court. There is an invitation to the court to draw a certain inference. 2. REBUTTABLE PRESUMPTIONS OF LAW They are inferences that must be dr awn in the absence of decisive evidence to the contradictory. A good lesson is the presumption of innocence, that every person accused of a crime is innocent until proved guilty. Until there is decisive evidence dispelling the innocence of the accused person.Essentially these presumptions are said to be mandatory until you have other determinate evidence to the contrary. 3. IRREBUTTABLE PRESUMPTIONS OF LAW These must be drawn no matter how much evidence exists to the contrary. Once you establish the basic fact pertaining to the presumption then you have to draw the inference that will dispel that presumption. They will usually be drawn from statutory provisions. They are public policy pronouncements, which decree that in the interest of public certain matters are decreed to be a certain way e. g. an 8 year old boy is not capable of carnal knowledge.Section 4 of the Evidence Act defines presumptions of facts and rebuttable presumptions of law 1) Whenever it is provided by law th at the court may simulate a fact, it may either examine such fact as proved, unless and until it is disproved, or may call for proof of it. 2) Whenever it is directed by law that the court shall don a fact, it shall regard such fact as proved, unless and until it is disproved. 3) When one fact is say by law to be conclusive proof of another, the court shall, on proof of the one fact, regard the other as proved, and shall not allow evidence to be given for the purpose of disproving it.PRESUMPTIONS OF FACTS (DISCRETIONARY PRESUMPTIONS) They are inferences that may be drawn. Section 4 (1). Evidence Act Section 77(2). The court may presume that the signature to any such document is genuine and that the person signing it held the office and qualifications which he professed to hold at the time when he signed it. The court is allowed to presume and it is officeholder on the person who argues otherwise to prove their case. Section 92.The court may presume that any document purporti ng to be a copy of a judgment or judicial playscript of any country not forming part of the Commonwealth is genuine and accurate, and that such judgment or record was pronounced or recorded by a court of competent jurisdiction, if the document purports to be advised in any manner which is aware by a Kenya consular officer or diplomatic typical in or for such country to be the manner commonly in use in that country for the certification of copies of judgments or judicial records. Section 93.The court may presume that any book, to which it may refer for information on matters of public or general interest, and that any publish map or chart, the statements of which are admissible facts and which is produced for its inspection, was written and published by the person and at the time and place by whom or at which it purports to have been written or published. There are certain things that are non-contestable and one should not waste the courts time trying to prove them. Section 113 this section used to help in probate matters but once the Law of Succession was put into being it was repealed.This was important when we would talk about proof of death within 30 years. Section 119. The Court may presume the existence of any fact which it thinks likely to have happened, regard being had to the common course of natural events, human conduct and public and private business, in their relation to the facts of the particular case. (Presumption of likely facts) We are talking about an inference that may be drawn regarding natural events, human conduct and the common course of natural events. You infer from what you see.If a person is caught with stolen goods, it is presumed that he stole them or that he knows who stole them. If they cannot adequately explain how they came to possess stolen goods, then the incumbent of proof is on them to say how the possessor came to lose the goods. The ability of the court of law to draw an inference Presumption of guilty knowledge. Fr om experience we can infer that a woman who is in possession of stolen goods after the theft and cannot give account of those goods is either the buccaneer or has received them knowing them to be stolen. We are talking of upstart possession. In Zus V.Uganda the question arose, the court here refused to apply the doctrine of new-fashioned possession after the accused was found in possession of a stolen bicycle 7 months after it had been recorded lost. The trial court had actually applied that doctrine to convict the thief of both the theft and receiving stolen goods because the accused had not given any reasonable explanation by how he had come upon the bicycle. The Appeal Court held that 7 months cannot be described as recent and consequently the court of appeal quashed the conviction for theft while upholding the conviction for receiving stolen goods.PRESUMPTION OF LIKELY FACTS S. 119 (IMMUTABILITY OF THINGS) A thing or state of things which has been shown to exist within a peri od shorter than that within which such things or state of things usually cease to exist is presumed to be still in existence. An example is given in the case of Kanji &038 Kanji V. R. 1961 E. A 411 C. A In this case a sisal pulverisation employees arm was amputated by a sisal decorticator in April 1960. An examination done by a Mr. Perkin in September 1960 showed that there was no barrier or fence to protect the employees when feeding the machine with sisal leaves.The firm was held liable for failing to provide ample barriers to protect employees from the machine and this finding was held on the basis of the presumption of the immutability of things. On appeal the factory owner had argued that there was some form of fence at the Factory when the accident occurred in 1960. This barrier was not found to be in place in September when Mr. Perkins did his inspection. The Court held that the Magistrate was correct in presuming that the machine was in the same condition in April as it wa s in September 1960.It is unlikely that there was a barrier in April which disappeared by September but the factory owners were welcome to bring in evidence to prove that there had been a barrier in April. OFFICIAL &038 JUDICIAL ACTS ARE REGULARLY PERFORMED (PRESUMPTION OF REGULARITY) It is found on sound public policy which imputes good faith on official and judicial conduct. The burden is on he/she who alleges irregularity to bring the evidence to disprove or establish the irregularity. Looking at how our courts run, this might not be the way to go.For instance if your file gets lost, will you allege that the file got lost by the court. THE COMMON COURSE OF BUSINESS HAS BEEN FOLLOWED IN PARTICULAR CASES The basis of this presumption is business practice. If some business has been carried out pursuant to this common course, it is going to be presumed to be so unless the person alleging otherwise brings evidence to the contrary. If you have a quarrel with the common course of busin ess, it is incumbent on you to prove that the common course of business was not followed.EVIDENCE WHICH COULD BE PRODUCED AND IS NOT PRODUCED WOULD IF PRODUCED BE UNFAVOURABLE TO THE PERSON WHO WITHHOLDS IT This again is something that you draw as a worldly-wise person. If someone is withholding evidence, it would be presumed that the person withholding the evidence is because It Is against them and it is incumbent upon the person withholding the evidence to show that it is not so. ACCOMPLICES ARE UNWORHTY OF CREDIT &038 THAT THEIR EVIDENCE SHOULD NOT BE USED TO CONVICT UNLESS IT IS CORROBORATED There are certain witnesses who are held hazard and followers are some of these witnesses.The reasons for the unworthiness of the evidence are that an accomplice is a participant in the offence and such a person would be highly tempted to pass the buck. Having participated in the commission of the offence an accomplice is mainly an immoral person and their word should not be taken without corroboration. An accomplice is likely to favour the state in hope for a pardon. It is necessary to get independent testimony on material particulars. Davies V. DPP 1954 AC 378 The appellate together with other youths attacked another mathematical group with fists.One of the members of the other group subsequently died of stab wounds inflicted by a knife. Six youths including the Appellant and one L were charged with murder but finally the Appellant alone was convicted. L and the others were convicted of common assault. At the Appellants trial, L gave evidence for the prosecution. Referring to an admission by the Appellant of the use of a knife by him. The Judge in this case did not warn the Jury on the danger of accepting Ls evidence without corroboration.On Appeal the Appellant was saying that he was wrongly convicted because of lack of this warning on the part of the judge. The court held that there was no good reason for quashing the conviction because L did not know before t he murder that any of his companions had a knife. Essentially the court held that L was not an accomplice in the crime of murder. The court here defined accomplices as persons who are Participes Criminis in respect of the actual crime charged whether as principal participants before or after the fact. It included people who procured, aided or abetted in the commission of the crime.The Court was trying to exonerate L from being a participant. He did not participate in the stabbing because he was not aware(predicate) that his colleague had a knife. REBUTTABLE PRESUMPTIONS OF LAW To rebut this presumption you need conclusive evidence. These are presumptions that are decreed by law. A good example is the presumption of genuineness in a document purporting to be the Kenya Gazette. There is also the presumption that a person between 8 and 12 is not criminally liable unless it can be shown that he knew that his action was morally and legally wrong.Once you establish the basic fact, then t he person could not be exposed to criminal liability unless you bring evidence to show that he knew that what he did was legally and morally wrong. Section 83. Presumptions as to documents (1)The court shall presume to be genuine every document purporting to be a certificate, certified copy or other document which is a) declared by law to be admissible as evidence of any particular fact and b) Substantially in the form, and purporting to be executed in the manner, directed by law in that behalf and c) Purporting to be duly certified by a public officer. 2)The court shall also presume that any officer by whom any such document purports to be signed or certified held, when he signed it, the official character which he claims in such document. To be able to disprove documents under this act you have to bring evidence. Records of Evidence Section 84Whenever any document is produced before any court, purporting to be a record or memorandum of any evidence given in a judicial proceeding o r before any officer authorized by law to take such evidence, and purporting to be signed by a Judge or magistrate or any such officer as aforesaid, the court shall presume a) that the document is genuine ) that any statements as to the circumstances in which it was taken, purporting to be made by the person signing it, are true and c) that such evidence was duly taken. The use of the word shall documents are presumed to be genuine. Section 85. The production of a copy of any written law, or of a copy of the Gazette containing any written law or any notice purporting to be made in pursuance of a written law, where such law or notice (as the case may be) purports to be printed by the Government Printer, shall be prima facie evidence in all courts and for all purposes whatsoever of the due making and tenor of such ritten law or notice. There is a public policy that such a documents shall be genuine unless there is conclusive evidence to the contrary. Sections 86, 87 and 88, Section 86 (1)The court shall presume the genuineness of every document purporting to be a) London Gazette, the Edinburgh Gazette, or the official Gazette of any country in the Commonwealth. b) A newspaper or journal ) A document directed by any law to be kept by any person, if such document is kept substantially in the form requisite by law and is produced from proper handle. (2)Documents are said to be in proper custody if they are in the place in which and under the care of the person with whom they would naturally be but no custody is improper if it is proved to have had a legitimate origin, or if the circumstances of the particular case are such as to render such an origin probable. Section 87.Where any publication or part so indicates or purports to indicate the name of any person by or on behalf or under sponsorship of whom, or the place at which or date on which, such publication or any part thereof was contributed, it shall, in any proceedings for an offence under any written law o r for contempt of any court, be presumed, until the contrary is proved, that such publication or part thereof was contributed, by or on behalf or under the sponsorship of such person, or at such place or on such date, as the case may be.Use of the word shall all publications will be deemed to have been published, edited, printed in the place that they are said to have been published unless you can bring evidence to the contrary.Section 88When any document is produced before any court, purporting to be a document which, by the law if force for the time being in England, would be admissible in proof of any particular in any Court of Justice in England, without proof of the seal or stamp or signature authenticating it, or of the judicial or official character claimed by the person by whom it purports to be signed a) the court shall presume that such seal, stamp or signature is genuine, and that the pers