Freud and Klein, Jung, and Rogers Theories Comparison

Freud and Klein, Jung, and Rogers Theories ComparisonIntroductionThis look for re overtakes the main beliefs of four psychological thinkers, Freud and Klein, Jung, and Rogers, and 1 psychological access, Trans virtuallyoneal Psychology. In each case I sketch the theory, in like manner noning points of agreement and disagreement betwixt them, some(a) snips drawing on my own experience.Each theory is reviewed under the following headingsMain root words sour of and with the therapistSimilarities and differences with other views chase the discussion of each theory, I disco biscuit some concluding remarks.Freud and Kleins psychoanalysisSigmund Freud was born(p)(p) in Moravia in 1856, and died in England in 1939. His primary training was medical and scientific, and he consistently maintained that his theory was to be tacit as a scientific maven. Among the most important scientific establish to works on his work came from the principle of the saving of cipher in physics. accord to Helmholz the total quantity of readiness in a system is constant unless new susceptibility is added, or energy is lost, the existing quantity finish only change in signifier and distri justion. Freuds initial creative insight can be checked as supposing that valet de chambre psychological science can be understood as an energy system. This enabled him to offer an explanatory account of the behaviour of neurotic concourse in terms of the causes of their behaviour, instead of supposing that this behaviour was mysterious, random or inexplicable (Brown 1961, p2-3 Thornton 2006).Melanie Klein was born in Vienna in 1882 (making her a generation younger than Freud) and died in London in 1960. Klein was a pi one and only(a)er in applying psychoanalytic techniques to baberen, maintaining that embolden behaviour could provide the comparable sort of data as gigantic-minded association, and as well as argued (an idea that Freud came to accept) that people were also dr iven towards death, or the finishing of livelihood, as well as to the preservation of life (Brown 1961, p71f).Freud revised and limited his ideas repeatedly during his long cargoner. It would take more(prenominal) space than this whole essay to review the changes, and I have other thinkers and approaches to discuss. In the following sub-section I outline some of the central commitments of Freud as they remain influential in practice today, making (for reasons of space) only limited reference to Klein.Main ideasFollowing Brown (1961) the following atomic estimate 18 the main components of Freuds views(1) Psychic determinism Freud was godlike by the principle of conservation of energy in physics, and maintained that gracious psychology was an energy system. What this meant specific altogethery was that behaviours that had previously been regarded as accidental or significanceless (including ambitiousnesss, tics, yawning, paralyses and slips of the tongue) could be operaten as possible symptoms the psychoanalytic observer could judge to interpret them as symptoms on the hypothesis that they represented energy that readiness not have been allowed to itself themselves directly.(2) The role of the unconscious The symptomatic individual is typically unaw atomic number 18 of the causes of her or his symptoms, and this is post because they atomic number 18 not the sort of things that the typeface wants to acknowledge. The thought of a desired outcome or action is quash because it is not acceptable, merely the energy associated with it has to go somewhere (see (1) above) and so is substituted for something else with a non-obvious kind. (If it was obvious, and so obvious to the unhurried role, it wouldnt successfully be suppress.) Work is inevitable to make the processes app arent, and to determine what to do close them.(3) Goal-oriented character of behaviour totally behaviour is for something, and repressed wishes cannot primarily be release d in ways unlike to the target desire. This is purpose of why symptoms can be informative. Freud describes a muliebrity who had been disgusted by a person allowing a dog to salute from a glass, that refused to express the disgust because it would have been rude and had obtain unable to drink water from supply herself. This refusal was, he claims, uncovered as a symptom by following up on her mussitate or so her lady friend during free-association under hypnosis, where the forgotten episode was recalled, and afterwards this the symptom disappeared (1962, p 36).(4) The developmental or historical approach in that location is a characteristic cycle to tender psychological development, closely associated with sex activity. get off here is understood widely, to include the full range of pleasurable ace over various regions of the system. Freud maintained that ordinarily people went through a series of stages, the first three broadly associated with a region of the body or al (first 18 months), then anal (18 months to 3 years), then phallic (ages 3 to 6 years), and a latency period during which pregenital desires were largely repressed (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p35). Finally during adolescence a genital stage begins. Each of these stages involves various kinds of negate (over access to the breast, toilet training, etc.) and these formative conflicts are, according to Freud, often the basis of by and by neurosis. Also we face an on sack conflict between our instincts (for pleasure and life, only also for aggressive conflict and death) and the hires of social and institutional alert, which begin in the family. This conflict between libido and reality is a major source of repression, but makes individuals un liable(predicate) to know why they are behaving as they are. The normal or healthy individual is not immune to the conflict (being so, for Freud, would require abandoning civilisation, or lacking the instincts) but is more flexible and flue nt at handling the conflict, more aware of what she or he is doing when denying an instinctual urge, and better able to get in in determining how restrained urges can be substituted or managed without repression.Klein (Fordham 1995, p47f), as noted, pioneered the application of analytic techniques with small children, partly by observing their antic behaviour, and partly through discussion.1 Fordham describes one of her case studies, of a child called Richard, during the certify world war. Richard was ten years old at the time. Klein interprets his conflicting responses to parents (e.g. a castration anxiety related to being lied to about(predicate) a circumcision procedure Fordham 1995, p51) and his construction of an account of the insides of peoples bodies, including his own, and that of his parents, curiously that of his beget prior to his birth.Work of and with the therapistThe Freudian analyst assistants partly by listening, or patently by being there plot of ground the patient free-associates and works through the things she or he says during the process. In Freuds view this process could enable the unconscious to be brought to consciousness, and patients come to understand how it is that they partly resist abandoning their symptoms (because theyre goal-oriented, even if non-optimal). The hope is that the unsymptomatic individual will be better able to satisfy her or his drives.The analyst does more than simply listen, of course, and her or his questioning and participation uses or facilitates a variety of procedures (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p39), including foeman, clarification, interpretation and working through, which are intended to help uncover repression (manifest in resistance to free association), and to manage the common transfer where uncovered drives are directed at the analyst, who is a highly satisfactory and sympathetic target for them.The healthy individual, for Freud, is one who is flexibly able to voyage the inevitable conflict between ego and reality. As Adam Phillips puts itFreudians see we are inevitably go against both from within and without our egos are violated by our desires and what happens to us. So the Freudian cannot imagine a life without defences, but only a life spent trying to protect himself from this life in order to be able to go on living it, with sufficient pleasure (2000, p161-2).Similarities and differences with other viewsFreuds work exerted massive influence on later psychology, and he interacted directly with a number of the figures Ill consider later. Im going to use this similarities and differences sub-section cumulatively, as I add detail about the different theories, and so have no more to say in this first round.I find one of Freuds most basic ideas, the psychic determinism, interesting and exciting. If hes correct, then a skilled observer can find intend in patterns of behaviour that would otherwise be regarded as random noise. Ive been given reason to observe patterns in my own behaviour more thoughtfully as a result of this Im not generally a tardy person, and now when I forget something that I need for some unpleasant task (a piece of paper I need for some boring administrative matter at the bank) or am late more than once for a meeting a particular person, I at least wonder whether these episodes arent in some way motivated, and what Im both remembering and forgetting plot of land I do it.Jungs analytic psychologyCarl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875, where he died in 1961. He initially collaborated intensely with Freud, but in 1910 resigned as Chairman of the International Psychoanalytical Association. His approach is called analytical psychology partly in order to make crap that it involves a departure from Freuds psycho-analysis.Main ideasJung shared with Freud the notion that an important part of the psychology of an individual person was the unconscious, and that dreams and other behaviour provides clues about what was go ing on there. As Fordham (1995, p79f) notes, Jung was dissatisfied with what he took to be the mechanical record of Freudian explanations, and preferred to think of the process of analysis as one of interpretation, leading to understanding of meaning rather than causal processes. He regarded symbols are some(prenominal) more important than Freud did. In addition he disagreed with Freud about the importance of the libido and sexual drives, maintaining that, especially in later life, people tended towards an excess stage of development, which involved realisation of the self in relation to the incarnate unconscious which is an inherited part of the unconscious, shared with others. This process was, according to Jung, probatoryly spiritual and even spiritual.This notion of the collective unconscious was a clear departure from Freud. Jung claimed to find recurring and universal archetypes (of key processes such as death and marriage Brooke 1991, p16) in world mythologies, folklor e and religion, and maintained that dreams should be construe in the context of this common inheritance, a process that he called expansion (Fordham 1995, p87). For Jung, neurosis was often related to a failure to pursue self-knowledge which in turn involved achieving a better take of connectedness with what he took to be human universals.Fordham quotes a passage from Jung illustrating his rejection of aspects of Freuds viewThe symptoms of a neurosis are not simply the effects of long- quondam(prenominal) causes, whether infantile sexuality or the infantile urge to power they are also attempts at a new synthesis of life unsuccessful attempts, let it be added in the same breath, but attempts nevertheless, with a core of value and meaning. They are seeds that fail to sprout owing to the inclement conditions of an intragroup and outer nature (Quoted in Fordham 1995, p81).Work of and with the therapistAlthough some of the tools of the Jungian therapist (free association, dream anal ysis) are the same as those of the Freudian, there are important differences in the point and intended outcome of the process.Because the Jungian believes in the collective unconscious, dreams and associations are not understood merely as expressions of a constrained energy system, but also as indications of a relationship with universal sources of human meaning, including spiritual ones. Interpretation is partly a process of amplification (Fordham 1995, p87) cognizant by the therapists understanding of the collective unconscious. As Fordham notes, Jung did not enter into details of the analyst-patient relation and suggests that Jung may not have been especially interested in this, relying rather heavily on the analysts native intelligence (Fordham 1995, p127).Similarities and differences with other viewsThe main differences I can see between Jung and Freud are the ones Ive noted Jung was less impressed by the role of the libido, and more inclined to take hard the spiritual marro w of what his subjects said. The healthy subject after Jungian therapy is generically similar to the patient after psycho-analysis, except that for Jung such a person, if an adult, will be volitionally involved in the spiritual. Fordham quotes Jung saying that the fascination which psychic life exerts upon in advance(p) man holds the promise of a far-reaching spiritual change in the western sandwich world (Fordham 1995, p91).The dispute with Freud regarding whether analysis produced causal explanations or interpretations seems to me like it could be unnecessary. A symptom could at the same time have a cause (because of being the substituted expression of a desire) and a symbolic meaning (because associations between ideas help determine what gets substituted). It seems right to take somewhat more seriously the spiritual experience of people (Ill say more about this under transpersonal therapy) but that doesnt have to mean supposing that what subjects report is true. Freuds patient ( expound above) was for a while disgusted by all glasses of water, but not because there was actually anything wrong with them.Rogers Person Centred TherapyCarl Rogers was born in the United States of America in 1902, where he also died in 1987. His work, which therefore came after the main contributions of Freud and Jung depict above, emphasised the human-centered idea that therapists technical skills were less important than their humanity, which he understood to require bringing dispositions such as stark(prenominal) corroborative regard and genuineness to the therapeutic process.Main ideasAccording to Rogers people are driven by a single disposal toward actualization (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p142), which is a design to develop capacities so as to maintain or enhance the beingness. This intention needs to be able to tell what maintains or enhances, and and then Rogers postulated an organismic valuing process that distinguishes between experiences that are good a nd disobedient for growth. This tendency leads us to distinguish ourselves from the world (this is roughly similar to some of Freuds thinking about the formation of infant identity through recognising the liberty of the world) and come to need positive regard for ourselves.Our main source of regard, not only positive, to begin with is other people, especially parents. We learn that their approval depends to some extent on what we do, and there can be a mis-match between what is actualizing in general (in the sense of good for growth by the lights of the organismic valuation process) and what is actualizing in the sense of leading to positive regard from others. To put one of my own experiences in these terms, we ability learn that we get positive regard by not taking the last cup-cake, even though we intensely want it and are bewildered by the fact that zilch else seems to want it at all. This tension creates conditions of worth (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p143) that distort t he expression of the tendency to actualise.Work of and with the therapistThe aim of therapy according to Rogers is to provide a relationship which the customer/patient may use for his own personal growth (Rogers 1961, p32), which is a matter of freeing up the tendency we all have to actualisation. According to Prochaska and Norcross (2003, p146f) that there are five conditions besides being in the relationship itself for therapeutic personality changes pic, Genuineness, Unconditional Positive Regard, Accurate Empathy, Perception of Genuineness. Vulnerability concerns the thickenings awareness of her or his own state of incongruence and hence vulnerability to anxiety. Genuiness is the required state of the therapist, who should be freely and deeply themselves (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p147) while in the therapeutic process, to be aware of her or his own feelings, in so far as possible, rather than presenting an outward faade of one attitude, while actually holding another (R ogers 1961, p33). At the same time the therapist must express the unconditional positive regard which is the disciplinary to the conditional positive regard from others that Rogerians take to be the cause of incongruence, a process in turn demanding accurate empathy of the clients inner world (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p147) which involves not filtering empathy through personal reactions (and so is an additional demand over and above genuineness. Finally the client must realise the genuineness of the therapist.In this environment, it is up to the client what to talk about. In this non-directive (as in, not directed by the therapist) environment, the client will, according to Rogers, realise a capacitor that everyone has to move forward toward maturity (Rogers 1961, p35). The result is supposed to be that the client becomes more integrated, more effective and to show fewer of the characteristics which are usually termed neurotic or psychotic, and more of the characteristics o f the healthy, well-functioning person (Rogers 1961, p36). Part of this depends on the unconditional positive regard of the therapist, through which the client can come to value her or his incongruence. In a hypothetical monologue from a client in therapy, Rogers writes unless now that Ive shared some of this bad side of me, he despises me. Im sure of it, but its strange I can find little evidence of it. Do you suppose that what Ive told him isnt so bad? Is it possible that I need not be ashamed of it as a part of me? I no longer feel that he despises me. It makes me feel that I want to go further, exploring me, perhaps expressing more of myself (Rogers 1961, p67).When the process works, the subject becomes a fully functioning individual (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p156) who trusts her or his own actual delirious responses to what they experience, and the courses of action that they spontaneously feel are best. Such a person lives fully in the present not filtering the present through past hurts, or leaving any of the present out.Similarities and differences with other viewsA Freudian would likely object that the Rogerian approach involving unconditional positive regard provides a transference relationship that has all the elements of an i disperseized maternal love (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p164), and also think that Rogers style of therapy missed out on important tools (free association) that Freud had showed could be useful. That said, the subject at the end of successful Rogerian therapy is similar to that supposed by Freud aware of his or her own actual emotions, authentically accepting of how they deal with them, not limited by distortions from previous experience. Some of the conflicts Freudians think are important (for example over access to the breast, or toilet training) can be described in terms of conditional positive regard. It also seems to me that Rogers has done a great deal of good by devoting so much attention to thinking about the relationship between client and therapist, and the demands on the therapist.Freudians would probably also agree with the fact that Rogers apparently didnt take religion very seriously. A Jungian, on the other hand, might complain that Rogers doesnt take the spiritual anywhere nearly seriously enough, and that his approach neglects important information about human psychology that are to be found in mythology and folklore. (Earlier in a passage quoted above, Jung notes that new-fashioned man has become unhistorical (Fordham 1995, p91).Finally, Rogers concern with selfactualisation, though, seems to me to make too much of what might be a specifically North American, or substance class, pre-occupation with the individual (Prochaska and Norcross make a similar point 2003, p164).Transpersonal PsychologyTranspersonal psychology is the name for a wide range of different approaches to therapy. Unlike the approaches discussed above, it is not primarily associated with a single influential figure. Lajoie and Shapiro (1992) reviewed some of the literature over the period 1969-1991, and report no less than forty different descriptions of what transpersonal psychology amounts to. Although in some ways the term is new, some argue that the ideas it stands for are not. Kasprow and Scotton, for example, trace the roots of transpersonal psychology at least to William James who had argued that the tribulation of spiritual experience should be its effect on people, rather than pre-emptively supposing with Freud that it was a kind of regressive defence (Kasprow and Scotton 1999, p12, 13, 15). They claim that what distinguishes transpersonal psychology, and gives it its name, is concern with delicateies associated with developmental stages beyond that of the adult ego, and it is this movement beyond the ego that merits the label transpersonal. As we saw above, Jung too was concerned with psychological development beyond adulthood, and with secluded experience (Fordham 1995, p 135). He is often noted as an influence on transpersonal psychology. Another key figure is Abraham Maslow, born in 1908 and who died in 1970, so with a productive life largely overlapping with that of Rogers.Main ideas the like Rogers, Maslow was a kind of human-centered Rogers whose client centred therapy is a form of humanistic psychology, and he and Maslow agreed that people had innate potential and desire for self-actualisation. Maslow is especially famous for his periodically revised hierarchy of needs describing a number of groupings of needs he took to be common to all people, some of which (e.g. for sleep) inevitable to be satisfied before others. In the original formulations (Maslow 1943, 1954) the top level of needs was for self-actualization which included morality and creativity. Later in his life he proposed that the top level included a state that some self-actualised people might achieve, which he called transcendence (Maslow 1971). Transcendence here is self-transc endence, and so refers to the same phenomenon as the transpersonal in transpersonal psychology. As Kasprow and Scotton (1999, p13) put it, transpersonal approaches are concerned with accessing and integrate developmental stages beyond the adult ego and with fostering higher human development and this involves dealing with matters relating to human values and spiritual experience including self-sacrifice and profound feelings of connectedness.Work of and with the therapistBecause transpersonal psychology is a large collection of approaches, there is more variation in how practitioners work. This makes it very difficult to offer a short summary. In general practice is humanist very simply put its Rogers with a spiritual aspect, or Rogers mixed with some elements of Jung, including focus on symbolic interpretation of imagery. But there are a number of distinctive tools used by some practitioners that are not generally used by proponents of the approaches described above, including use of altered states of consciousness besides those of hypnosis and being on the therapists couch, including by means of some of the tools used traditionally and in shamanistic and religious practice to achieve altered states, including fasting, dancing, prayer, relaxation, sex, ritual and drugs (Kasprow and Scotton 1999, p18). attached the focus on transcendent experience, it isnt surprising that a significant fraction of transpersonal practice relates to experiences like bereavement (Golsworthy and Coyle, 2001)2 or that it has been found generally useful in pastoral counselling (Sutherland, 2001).3Similarities and differences with other viewsNow that all four approaches have been described, it is possible to say something more general about relationships between them. Freud and Rogers are both relatively secular in orientation. Jung and Transpersonal psychology both take spiritual and transcendent experience more seriously. Rogers and at least some transpersonal psychologists (in cluding Maslow) are clearly humanist. Despite their differences, they have in some ways similar conceptions of the healthy human being, who is free from some forms of conflict, and able to cope flexibly with life. They differ on what the world is like, in particular over the status of transcendent experience, and over the degree of personal identity to be aimed for (with Rogers seeming the most individualistic).ReferencesBrooke, R. 1991. Jung and Phenomenology, London Routledge.Brown, J.A.C. 1961. Freud and the Post-Freudians, London Pelican.Fordham, M. 1995. Freud, Jung, Klein The fenceless field, London Routledge.Freud, S. 1962. twain Short Accounts of Psychoanalysis (translated and edited by James Strachey), London Penguin.Golsworthy, R. and Coyle, A. 2001. Practitioners accounts of religious and spiritual dimensions in bereavement therapy, Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 14(3), pp 183202.Kasprow, M.C. and Scotton, B.W. 1999. A canvass of Transpersonal Theory and Its applica tion to the Practice of Psychotherapy. Journal ofPsychotherapy Practiceand Research, 8(1), pp 12-23.Lajoie, D. H. Shapiro, S. I. (1992).Definitions of transpersonal psychology The first twenty-three years. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 24(1), pp 79-98..Maslow, A.H. 1943. A Theory of Human demand, Psychological Review, 50 pp 370-96.Maslow, A.H 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York Harper.Maslow, A.H. 1971. The farther reaches of human nature. New York Penguin.Phillips, A. 2000. Promises, Promises. London Faber and Faber.Prochaska, J.O. and Norcross, J.C. 2003. Systems of Psychotherapy A Transtheoretical Analysis, Pacific Grove Thomson.Rogers, C.R. 1961. On Becoming a Person A therapists view of psychotherapy, London Constable.Sutherland, M. 2001. Developing a transpersonal approach to pastoral counselling, British Journal of Guidance Counselling, 29(4), pp 381-390.Thornton, S.P. 2006. Sigmund Freud Internet Enclycopedia of Philosophy, URL http//www.iep.utm.edu/f/freud. htm (Accessed 8 September 2008).1Footnotes1 Fordham notes that the earliest application of analysis to a child of which he is aware was to a child aged 13 months, a process that was hardly at all verbal (Fordham 1995, p145).2 This paper also reports a common frustration that much mainstream therapy ignores or underplays religious experience, which is likely part of the appeal of transpersonal psychology.3 This paper reports the same frustration as described in the previous footnote, from the specific perspective of clerics who may have reliable training in secular forms of psychological counselling.

Annual marketing plan of general motors

yearly merchandise excogitate of general motorsAn annual marketplaceing plan is a powerful management light beam for business organizations targeting to strengthen their market positions. The plan provides a guide on completely market activities for an full fiscal year. A technical merchandise plan is obtained from a strategic marketing study and research based on a particular organization. In this essay, we focus on General Motors Comp whatevers annual marketing plan which contains its website analysis, marketing objectives, strategies, tactics, financial thoughtfulnesss and a timetable for implementation.A situation analysis provides a general understanding of General Motors internal and external business environments (Brown Ph D Brown, 2008). This is the analysis of the high society, customers, collaborators, competitors and the climate (NetMBA.com, 2010). The federation is one of the foundings largest automaker with several(prenominal) years of experience and op erating in over 157 countries in the military personnel and has its headquarters in Detroit. It mete give aways and operate vehicles by dint of several known brands such(prenominal) as Chevrolet and FAW among others. The come with is sound known brand name in the competitive automotive industry and gives the latest technology in managing its entire marketing network all over the world. The participations culture is to produce and sell high quality vehicles and services to the entire world. Moreover, greatest goal is to hold back all its customers for the future service provision. In addition, the company has a respective(a) supplier base which provides quality raw materials for its production process. The supplier change ensures that the company gets the best for its investments which go a long path in customer satisfaction (General Motors, 2010).The company has a genuinely huge world market with broad customer base which is being targeted by its marketing plan. These customers are provided with timely discounts on vehicle gross sales as wholesome as services which motivate them thus increasing purchases. Also, the company is in a very competitive automotive industry facing essential threat from existing players such as Toyota and other potential in the buff entrants. Currently, the Worlds political and regulatory environment is stable and favors the company good performance. On the other hand, the economic environment is still recovering from recession which lessen customers purchasing power. However, the new technology and the social environment are good for the companys marketing strategies (General Motors, 2010).The marketing objectives of General Motors include the recovering the lost market share by the residuum of the year. This is beca utilise recently the company lost linked States market share to Ford Motor Co. and Toyota Motor Corp. The second company objective is to increase its annual sales revenue by over 30 %. This is to re cover from its fall of light-vehicle sales by 5.7 % and also to replica Ford and Toyota sales which have soared over 30 % respectively (Bloomberg, 2010). some other marketing strategy is to position itself in the market for easy and industrious introduction of new ripe products and services throughout the year. This is because the company uses its innovative strategies to meet dynamic customer demands for automotives which require appropriate marketing plan. Moreover, the company aims to improve its corporate image throughout the year as well as raise public awareness of all its automotive models and services (Berry Wilson, 2000).The company marketing strategies will include advertising, sales packaging, publicity and guide marketing. The advertisements will entail the paid spaces and airtime on the broadcast and print media. Moreover, the outdoor(a) advertisements with huge pictures of the model vehicles could attract new and existing customers. The sales promotion involves the use of incentives and offers that encourage the population to purchase its products and services at specific times. The publicity is that awareness created by the information and opinion carried by third parties about the companys automotives and services. The direct marketing involves the personal presentation to customers or potential buyers on the vehicle performances and services offered. This direct marketing can be done through any convenient mode of correspondence among the company employees and the target customers (Mullin Cummins, 2008).The tactics to be employed by the company are aimed at maximizing the achievement of specific marketing objectives through particular strategies. The major tactic is for the company to engage integrated marketing which utilizes the four strategic marketing tools in a balanced way to achieve its objectives. For instance, General Motors is an industrial company and as such virtually emphasis should be put on direct marketing. In addi tion, the company will select specific periods within the year to carry out sales promotion aimed at acquiring short term sales targets. Moreover, the advertisement strategy is worth monitoring so as to use the most appropriate advertisement media such as the internet, newspaper or broadcast. Furthermore, the publicity tool will constantly be in use when the company offers good products and services to third parties who in turn utter about the company thus achieving indirect marketing (Mullin Cummins, 2008).The financial consideration for the companys marketing plan is to ensure that the benefits value exceed the marketing expenses. The marketing expenses will be monitored throughout the entire year to avoid any budget variances. The marketing plan affects the sales, cost of sales and the marketing expenses all of which directly affects profitability and cash flow. Therefore financial consideration is very important for any effective marketing plan (Berry Wilson, 2000). The timet able of implementation of this marketing plan begins immediately and will run through the entire financial year. The various marketing strategies and tools will be employ appropriately at different times and sometimes blended to achieve maximum objectives. The lowest marketing report will be prepared at the end of the year for the appraisal purposes. This final report will be used further in the preparation of the next annual marketing plan. In conclusion, an annual marketing plan is a crucial management tool that is used by General Motors to achieve their management objectives.

Effectiveness Of Communication In Project Management

Effectiveness Of conference In swan focussingA encounter is a atypical endeavor undertaken to wee a unique product, service or core (PMI, 2008, pg. 5). A lying-in is a term of unique, interlacing and connected solveivities having matchless goal or finding and that must(prenominal) be sleep withd by a featureized beat, inwardly compute, and according to specification (Wysocki and McGary, 2003, p. 3). A excogitate comprises of number of activities that must be completed in some specific auberge or sequence according to their adept needs. Activities in a fashion modelulate atomic number 18 unique, complex and connected in a sense that no devil activities tramp occur under the aforementioned(prenominal) conditions which doctor them unique the activities ar non simple, and the forbidden countersink of one feat mechanism becomes the input to a nonher which makes them connected (Wysocki and McGary, 2003). The near central difference betwixt the direct ion check of on-going summonss and the tell apartment pull wires of labours is that the on-going operations continue indefinitely, whereas a wander stretchners, moves forward from one milestone to the next, and then stops (Anthony and Govindarajan, 2005, p. 790). visits be temporary, unique and require modernized elaboration (Gardiner, 2005, p. 2). The first characteristic is that learns have a definite purport span and they exist for a limited time interpolateing from a couple of(prenominal) days to several years although its end products whitethorn sustain indefinitely. This temporary nature of picture indicates a definite beginning and an end. The end is r all(prenominal)ed when the objectives of the take care are achieved the need for control no longer exists or the objectives of the brook buttocks non be met due to lack of resources and the befuddle is terminated. The second characteristic is that each and every sick will be diametrical from other(a) s tarts in their own way. The last characteristic is that as the find bulge progresses, work require is slowly defined with reading organism added over time (Gardiner, 2005).A find usually has a single objective and the time eyeshot is the end of the witness. The objective of a consider is to produce a commensurate product, indoors a specified time period, and at an optimum terms (Burke, 2007). Projects often guide trade-offs betwixt scope, inscription, and cost (Gardiner, 2005). Less scope might mean less costs or a shortened schedule leads to overtime and thus increasing costs. Plans for lying-ins give the sack be alterd frequently and drastically. A determine begins when care has reviewed the nature of what is to be with with(p) in the purge and approved it. The show ends when its objective has been striveed, or when it has been nominatecelled. Projects notify be of miscellaneous durations. nigh give whitethorn last for a few days, a few weeks, or se veral years. Its content tin be identical to work done forwards, or unlike anything ever done before (Burke, 2007). Most tolerates originate small, build up to a peak activity and then taper off as completion near (Anthony and Govindarajan, 2005).An transnational project is a project that involves multiple locations, entities, establishments and business units (Lientz and Rea, 2003). International projects typically are simultaneously multicultural projects relating to diverse civilisations be it national, organizational, or practicable cultures (Kster, 2010, p.3). In foreign projects, stakeholders and organizations who have different cultural and educational flat coat work together. International projects are different from national projects beca wasting disease of language and accent mark variations religious practices legal, regulatory and inform requirements technology level differences in different areas (Lientz and Rea, 2003). The difference in the midst of standa rd projects and worldwide projects are shown in the circuit board belowAttri howevereStandard projectsInternational ProjectsOrganizationsSingleMultiple organizations and departments arranging and technologyHomogeneousMultiple systemsCultureSingle and common cultureMultiple, varied culturesOrganizationCan be focussed on the project some other competing demands for resourcesSelf-interest much than easily understoodMore complex to go steadyTable 1 Comparison of standard and international projects (Lientz and Rea, 2003)In short, a project contribute be considered as a series of activities and tasks that haveA specific objectiveDefined offshoot and end datesConsume human and nonhuman resourcesAre multi exital2.2. Project feel CycleA project can be considered to have a life sentence-cycle that is divided into iv microscope stages. Those descriptors are Initiation and definition, Planning and development, Execution and reign over and finally Closure (Gardiner, 2005 Burke, 2007 Keeling, 2000). A stopping point up understanding of these phases permits the project autobus to control resources resultantually to achieve the project objectives.DDocumentsMscDissertationRequiredPlc.JPGFigure 2 Project Life Cycle (Gardiner, 2005)2.2.1 Initiation and definitionThis phase represents the start of the project. This is a conceptual phase which embroils the preliminary evaluation of an idea (Kerzner, 2006). This phase sets the scope of the project (Gardiner, 2005 Keeling, 2000). It forms the basis for deciding if a point function or feature is within the scope of the project. This is the phase where new ideas and options are considered and tested to ensure the project objectives can be achieved do use of resources in effect (Burke, 2007). The project ideas are usually derived from the identification of a demand, an ready(prenominal) resource or a need (Potts, 2002). The initiation and definition phase is mainly ab start formulating goals and strategies (Keelin g, 2000).2.2.2 Planning and developmentDuring the inventning phase, the time plan is set into detail and the readying of the project is conducted with great accuracy. In the project be after phase, a project grooming aggroup specifies the rough estimates that were do when it was decided to implement the project. The project planning phase is often the well-nigh challenging phase for a project animal trainer as he/she needs to make an educated guess of the stakeholders to be tangled, resources and equipment necessitate to complete the project (Wysocki and McGray, 2003). The project passenger vehicle needs to plan colloquys and procurement activities and create a comprehensive suite of project plans which set out a clear project roadmap ahead (Gardiner, 2005). Planning helps in reduce uncertainty, increases understanding of the goals and objectives to be achieved and improves resource efficiency (Wysocki and McGray, 2003).Thus enlarge specifications for the product, tim e schedules, and cost budget are prepared and a circumspection control system, a task control system and an organization chart developed. moreover a answerable private instructor is identified for each work package. blush on projects with little complexity a plan for planning exists and the planning assist itself can be seen as a subproject (Anthony and Govindarajan, 2005).2.2.3 Execution and controlThis is the phase in which the plans are put into operation (Keeling, 2000). The rate of wasting disease is at its peak in this phase (Gardiner, 2005 Burke, 2007). Executing the plan involves four steps (Wysocki and McGray, 2003)Identify the specific resources that will be required to accomplish the work defined in the plan.Assign workers to activities.Schedule activities with specific start and end dates.Launch the plan.No matter how attentive the team up is when creating the plan, the project work may not go according to plan. There may always be some schedule slips (Wysocki and McGray, 2003). To minimize this, the progress of the project should be regularly monitored. This is usually done in the controlling phase. accurate work is measure against the plan to monitor the progress of the project and repeal potential problems which may occur in the future.2.2.4 ClosingClosing a project means that the project has been completed and the results of the project can be submitted to the c livent. The closing phase evaluates what occurred during the project and provides historical information for use in planning and executing later projects (Keeling, 2000 Kerzner, 2006).2.3. Role of Project ManagerThe character of project carriage is to attain the project objectives (Gardiner, 2005). The project managing director must be experienced, capable, and competent in getting the project work done on time, within budget and according to specification (Wysocki and McGray, 2003). The project charabanc must simultaneously see to the needs of the sponsor and other stakeh olders, manage the project life cycle and the effect of the project team, including his or her performance (Gardiner, 2005). It is a grapheme that involves a mix of abilities, combining management with attracters and semipolitical awareness (Pinto, 2000). The project manager is responsible for coordinating and desegregation activities across multiple, functional lines. The integration activities performed by the project manager include activities which are necessary to develop a project plan discharge a plan and to make changes to the plan (Kerzner, 2006). A project manager must be able to understand the project detail but manage from the overall perspective (PMI, 2008). As an architect of the project plan, the project manager must provide complete task definitions resource requirement definitions major time table milestones definition of end item timberland and reliability requirements and the basis for performance measurement (Kerzner, 2006).Project managers influence moun tain to take action (Gardiner, 2005). This requires an ability to communicate in a mood provide for the individualistic(a) concerned. If communion in the project is of low tincture, the project will be more likely to fail (Armstrong, 1992). People work within a project always communicate but the quality of the conference must be high. The purpose and direction of the project lie on the ability of the project manager to communicate well with the partners within the project (Briner et al., 1996). One master(prenominal) role of the project leader is to create active dialogue among the project members by staying in touch with individuals and difference information between different members and between them and the funding organization (Briner et al., 1996). The project manager must be able to convert the inputs (i.e. resources such as capital, materials, equipments, facilities, information, personnel etc.) into output of products, services and ultimately profits (Kerzner, 2006). In order to do this, the project manager needs strong communicative and social adroitnesss, must become familiar with the operations of each line organization and must have cognition of the technology used (Kerzner, 2006). Project leader should have high level of communicating skills to be able to successfully manage with the project. The project managers role is like a spider weave the web and should be the centre of communion and events (Briner et al., 1996).One of the major responsibilities of the project manager is planning. If project planning is performed correctly, then it is conceivable that the project manager will work himself out of the job because the project can run itself (Kerzner, 2006).The chief executive role of the project manager involves more than that of being accountable for the activities of the project (Cusworth and Franks, 1993). It implies that the manager is expected to make things happen by active involvement. The manager role as co-ordinator i s vital in co-ordinating the efforts of the project team and the stakeholders. The project manager should define the ethics, norms and values of their project team, establishing the automated teller machine of the organization and the way that the sundry(a) project tasks are approached. The project managers role as a diplomat requires high level of sensitivity and faithful negotiating skills (Cusworth and Franks, 1993). He/she must be able to negotiate the relationship between the project and its environment and must be able to ensure the political support.The project manager along with his/her team should brainstorm to decide who the various stakeholders in the project might be. The project manager should go out and talk to all of those stakeholders and develop the necessary interviewing and probing skills which enable him/her to gain out of them what their expectations are. Often, the stakeholders are uncertain about what they want (Potts, 2002 PMI, 2008). The project manager should engage in a dialogue with them to help them to think through their expectations (Jandt, 2007). The project managers initial consideration of stakeholder expectations will help him/her to begin to understand the kinds of resources the project might require and will ensure positive upshot (PMI, 2008). Talking about resources does not mean notwithstanding talking about tangible resources of money, time and materials, but also about those intangible resources of technical skills, non-technical managerial and conversation skills, and the vital intangible of commitment and support from particular people within the project organisation and outside it (Jandt, 2007).The project manager should need to map the risk that may occur in a project by going through a structured sour (PMI, 2008). Such process might include brainstorm possible risks considering what was misemploy in similar projects previously clustering into related topics weighting-seriousness and probability steering on the very serious and highly probable defining the project symbol, and review typical risks planning how to run the project with the risks in mind. set off where in the project the risks will be most crucial deciding how to reduce the risks so that the chances and consequences of failure are minimised.The project can be considered as temporary organization because it has limited time frame, limited budget, specific goals and activities (Maylor, 1999). some(a) of such temporary organizations might be inter-organizational projects that involve many an(prenominal) organizations having different specialties or expertise (Maylor, 1999). In such projects, it is very important for the project manager to ensure the flow of information from the different organizations involved within the project. The flow of information is vital for the success of such project or organization (Burke, 2007). Since these innovation projects are of interdisciplinary and innovative, the share of experience s, go to bedledge, and the cooperation in different stages of the project development become absolute necessary for its success.Managing international projects that are of multi organizational type is not an easy task, especially when these organizations are from different technical, cultural, political digestgrounds and have different management style in their approach for handling a task (Lientz and Rea, 2003 Koster, 2010). A careful and detailed preparation of projects, especially for inter organizational ones due to their complexity, in their planning phase is vital for their success. The manager should have high experience in planning such projects.To summarize things up, the project manager should have the chase attributes index to select and develop an operational team.Leadership skills and management ability.Ability to anticipate problems, solve problems and make decision.Ability to integrate the project stakeholders. operable tractableness.Ability to plan, expedite and get things done.Ability to negotiate, persuade and make deals. transform the environment within which the project is being managed.Ability to review monitor and apply control.Ability to keep the stakeholders and client happy.COMMUNICATION ITS ROLE AND metier IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT3.1 Definition of parley communion is a process in which information is transmitted from a source to a pay forr through various channels (JPIM, 2000). intercourse means act of transferring information, exchange of information, message which is either written or verbal, and an idea for transportation mentations in effect (Kerzner, 2001). A good definition of project converse is Project communication management includes the process required to ensure well-timed(a) and appropriate generation, collection, distribution, storage, retrieval and ultimate disposition of project information (PMI, 2008, p. 243).In a project environment, communication refers to the exchange or sharing of messages and informatio n to pose content and knowledge between project manager, internal and the external stakeholders (Verma, 1996). Communication is a process involving the exchange of message and the creation of meaning. No two individuals ever bond the same meaning to a message or symbol. Effectiveness of communication depends on the degree to which the individuals attach similar meanings to the messages exchanged. state differently, communication is effective when individuals are able to minimize misunderstandings. To say that meaning in communication is never totally same for all communicators is not to say that communication is impossible or even difficult only that is imperfect (Fisher, 1978, p. 257). When individuals communicate, they attach meaning to messages they construct and transmit to others. They also attach meaning to messages they receive from others.There are different types of communication such as verbal, written and non-verbal (Verma, 1996 Mehta, 2008). Verbal communication giv es a lot of flexibility to the speaker. It is mainly used in face to face meetings, group meetings and over the telephone. While communicating verbally, the speaker can communicate with voice as well as body language. Written communication on the other hand is usually more precise (Mehta, 2008). Written communication can be in the form of letters, memos, notices, emails, reports, proposals memoranda etc. Another type of communication is the non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication refers to a speakers actions and attributes that are not purely verbal. It can be reflected in the way people dress, their tone and stance piece of music talking, their gestures, facial expressions and their body language (Verma, 1996).3.2 Importance of CommunicationCommunication is an important skill for project managers to accomplish effective project management (Analoui, 1993). This skill is vital because part of management is motivating people to perform their designate duties to the best o f their ability (Perret, 1982 Scott, 1989). Effective communication is the key to success for the individual as well as for the project (Verma, 1996, p.23). By using communication skills, the project manager help to plan, direct, control and coordinate their operations passim the project life cycle (Verma, 1996). Most of the communication activities of project managers involve interpersonal communication and project communications, sharing information with the project team members and other stakeholders. Communication is the nerve system of leadership, teamwork, cooperation and control. It determines the quality of relationships, levels of satisfaction, the extent of projects success or failure.Cleland and King (1988) in a study of fifty project managers found that managers named communication as one of the vital ingredients for successful project implementation. Moreover, Morris and Hough (1986) also argues that clear communication is necessary for project success and that effecti ve communication is the key to high staff morale which is vital for project success. According to Ruuska (1996, p.67) More than half of the management problems in projects are more or less caused by poorly looked-after communication. Communication acts as a resource as well as tool in project management. As a resource, communication can be compared to other project resources such as time, money, people and equipment. It should be taken into consideration when planning along with the resources. On the other hand, communication is a tool which can be used for effective utilization of other project resources. Communication helps in developing relationships in the organization (Ruuska, 1996). A project manager uses communication more than any other element in the project management process to ensure that the team members are working cohesively on project problems and opportunities (Verma, 1996).Communication plays an important role in connecting different separate of an organization tog ether and its external environment (Taylor and Watling, 1979). In an organization, communication is needed to inform the members about the on-going status of the project. For an effective management, it is necessary to have a two way communication channel, to and fro in and across a project organization. A good communication channel can also result progress to be monitored difficulties to be reported natural covering to the executive management and expert specialist can advise on technical or commercial problems to be sought by any participant (Keeling, 2003).Communication plays an important role in influencing the whole organization that may be bear uponed and not only those immediately involved in the change. However, the greatness of communication is often neglected in many projects (Toney and Power, 1997). Furthermore, lack of communication also results in many failures in change projects (Orr and McKenzie, 1992). Failure to contain adequate information flows, conflict amon g project staff or between project administrators and professional staff, as being among some of the causes for inadequate execution, operation and supervision in projects (Rondinelli, 1977). These problems which are in essence communication problems are likely contributors to project failure. Hammond (1990) states that if the intrinsic difficulties such as limitation of currency are taken away, the reason some projects fail is because of problems with people, problems that effective communication could go a long way in solving. Lack of effective communication may lead to misunderstanding. Frustration can be seen in employers due to ineffective or poor communication and may result in conflicts. Communication breakdown is a prime cause of take issue or conflict (Keeling, 2003).3.3 Model of CommunicationA basic simulation of communication is shown belowDescription CDocuments and SettingsmnmbaramDesktopcommunication model.JPGSource Project management Institute, 2008.This model show s how communication is transferred between the vector and the receiver. The model includes the following componentsEncode. The process of putting an idea or a thought into a symbol.Message. The encoded thought or idea.Medium. Means by which the encoded message is transmitted.Noise. Anything that distorts the message.Decode. To translate the message back into thoughts and ideas.The components in the communication model should be taken into account when discussing project communication. The sender determines what information he or she intends to share, encodes this information in the form of a message, and then transmits the message as a signal to the receiver. The finis decodes the transmitted message to determine its meaning and then responds accordingly. If the message decoded is the same as the sender intended, communication is successful (Jandt, 2007). Whenever information is sent from the sender to the receiver, the sender is responsible for making the information clear to the receiver so that the receiver understands it clearly. The receiver is responsible for making sure that the information is authoritative is in its authoritative form and understood correctly. In order to make sure that the message is sent and understood properly, feedback is required (Verma, 1996).3.4 Channels of CommunicationThree basic channels of communication in a project environment exist (Verma, 1996). They are upward communication, downward communication and lateral communication.3.4.1. Upward communicationThis type of communication is called subordinate/manager communication (Fielding, 2006). It involves communication from the lowest positions in the company to the highest positions. It contains information that higher management needs to evaluate the overall performance of the project for which they are responsible (Verma, 1996). This communication is in the form of reports, memoranda or messages about individual problems and performance company policies and practices an d specific staff problems.3.4.2 Downward CommunicationThis communication involves managers communicating down the line to subordinates. It provides direction and control for project team members and other employees. It may include information such as missions and goals of the organisation, feedback to subordinates on their performance procedures to be followed etc (Fielding, 2006).3.4.3 Lateral communicationThis communication takes place between departments in a company or project manager and his/her peers (Verma, 1996). This communication is in the form of reports on the activities of departments to keep each other aware and information to managers on company policies and progress so that they are able to make informed decisions (Fielding, 2006).3.5 Effectiveness of CommunicationEffective communication involves minimizing misunderstandings. To be effective in communicating with people, everyone must be mindful. Communicating effectively and appropriately are important aspects of b eing perceived as a skilled communicator (Gudykunst and Kim, 1992). Communication is only effective if the following two conditions are met (Rogers, 1976 cited in JPIM, p. 364). Firstly, the source must be willing to share the information. However, such willingness may be absent at times because the source may not be able to transmit the information, is reluctant to transmit the information or thinks that the information is irrelevant. Secondly, the information transmitted is only effective if it has an effect on the receiver. The effect maybe either change in knowledge, change in attitude or a change in behavior. uneffective communication can occur for a variety of reasons when individuals communicate. They may not encode the message in a way that it can be understood by others, people may misinterpret what they say or both can occur simultaneously. Effective communicators are those who are cause knowledgeable and possess certain communication skills (Samovar and Porter, 2004, pg. 303). Project managers should be motivated should have a positive attitude towards communication event and they should put every effort to bring about constructive results. They should have the knowledge of what topics, words or meanings are required in a situation. They should know how to assemble, plan and perform content knowledge in a particular situation. Their communication skills should be high enough to accomplish their goals (Samovar and Porter, 2004, pg. 303).For effective communication in project management, it is innate that communication should be focused. If used effectively, can reduce non-productive effort, avoid duplication and help eliminate mistakes (Clarke, 1998). Communicating effectively helps in identification of problems, helps in generating ideas leading to better solutions and helps in dealings with uncertainty. Moreover, it encourages team-work, motivates the team and ensures that every member of the team is involved (Gannon, 1994). Not only effective communication is essential for project implementation and control, it is a tendinous weapon against stakeholders conflict. Communication usually fails for the following reasons not having a clear goal in mind not establishing relationship being raring(p) not hearing what others have to say overabundance of ego expect that others have the same information on the subject that you have misidentify interpretations for facts failure to analyse and handle resistance (Ritz, 1990).3.6 Communication in stages of Project Life CycleCommunication is important during various phases of the project life cycle. During the initiation/planning phase, communication planning involves determining the information and communication needs of the stakeholders who wants what information, when will they need it, and how will it be given to them (PMI, 2008). Some other things to be given consideration are the methods of communication to be utilized during the project. These are the technologies or methods used to transfer information back and forth among project entities. Different forms of communication will need to be utilized for communicating with different types of stakeholders and different occasions. Different assumptions and constraints that will affect the project also need to be carefully thought out. at one time these factors are kept in mind, develop and document a communication plan that can be shared with the entire set of stakeholders, including team members, management customers and vendors. This type of methodical planning can lead to a carefully constructed project communication plan (Mehta, 2008). The plan should detail out what type of communication will take place during the project, who will receive what type of information, where the information will be stored, the schedule of communication such as status reports and project team meetings. Communication with stakeholders from start to the finish of a project is essential to all project management (Verma, 1996) .in one case the initial communication guidelines and expectations of the project have been conventional, the communication plan can be executed. During the execution phase of the project, the three main communication functions are information distribution, performance account and project control. Information distribution involves making needed information available to project stakeholders in a timely manner. It includes implementing communication management plan and responding to unexpected requests for information (PMI, 1998, p. 106). Some of the essential tools and technologies for information distribution are communication skills and information distribution system. Many of the project deliverables and records result from this function such as meeting proceeding and decision documents.Various tools and techniques can be used for performance reporting such as performance reviews, variance analysis, traffic light reports, realize value analysis and trend analysis (Scott and bill ing, 1998). The output that results from performance reporting are performance reports and project change requests that is generated due to corrective action that needs to be taken to address a variance from the original plans or additional customer needs. All of these functions are useful for project control. Keeping the project on track according to the project plan, budget and estimates that have been laid out is of prime importance. If the project needs to vary from any of these established plans, the project information distribution system should be utilized. The project stakeholders need to be informed and new expectations need to be set. Following a set of established project management processes can be helpful in identifying events that are not planned for. When unexpected events occur, assessing the impact and quickly communicating them to the affected people according to your established communication plan can be efficiently addressed them. Some simple things that a projec t manager needs to keep i

Comparison of Nigeria and Irans Politics

Comparison of Nigeria and Irans PoliticsINTRODUCTIONNigeriaNigeria is authoritatively cognise as the federal official country of Nigeria. it is an elected sacred republic embodying 36 avers and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The land is found in West Africa and shares land outskirts with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its drift in the south lies on the gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. Nigeria is regularly whollyuded to as the teras of Africa, because of its extensive populace and economy. With around 174 million occupants, Nigeria is the most crowded dry land in Africa and the seventh most crowded nation on the planet. The nation is possessed by in excess of 500 ethnic gatherings, of which the leash biggest are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. Nigeria is Africas headspringing oil maker more than than a enlarged portion of its kin live in neediness. Nigeria assumes a noticeable class in African affairs has withdrawn troops from oil-rich Bakassi promontory to compensate outskirt debate with CameroonIranIslamic Republic of Iran since 1980, is a nation in Western Asia. It is verged on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, with Kazakhstan and Russia over the Caspian Sea on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Iran is home to unitary of the worlds most seasoned civilizations, starting with the shaping of the Proto-Elamite and Elamite solid ground in 3200 2800 BCE. Iran holds 9% of world oil saves a discriminating famine in jobs has hit the youthful, and inter field authorizations have severely influenced the economy in general. Irans nuclear system incited the international group to force progressively yearning authorizes in an offer to induce Tehran to halt uranium enhancement. An scheme to limit uranium improvement was struck in November 2013.EXECUTIVE brassThe executive director is the piece of political science that has sole index finger and obligation regarding the solely(prenominal) day organization of the state. The executive outgrowth executes or implements the law. The division of power into discrete limbs of presidency is integral to the thought of the giveition of powersNigeriaThe executive lengthiness is partitioned into Federal Ministries, each one headed by a clergyman selected by the president. The president must incorporate no less than one part from each of the 36 states in his cabinet. The chairs arrangements are affirmed by the Senate of Nigeria. In a few cases, an elected pastor is in charge of more than one ser iniquity (for instance, Environment and Housing may be joined), or a priest may be supported by one or more clergymen of State.1 Each service likewise has a immutable Secretary, who is a senior civil servant. In Nigeria, the executives are made up of the president and his bad habit. In democratic adminis tration, the executives signs charge that have been concord by the Nigerian national gatherings into law. They likewise name key mickle into the government. In the armed forces period, the executive who essential are the head of state and his delegate authorizes laws by pronouncement.Iranthe Executive limb of government are three backsliding bodies 1) Assembly of Experts (Majles-e Khoebregan), a prevalently chose body accused of deciding the rise of the unconditional Leader, looking into his execution, and dismissing him if regarded vital 2) gain Council or the Council for the Discernment of Expediency (Majma-ye- Tashkhis-e -Maslahat-e- Nezam) pushes supervisory power over the executive, judicial, and legislative extensions and determines legislative issues when the Majles and the Council of Guardians differ and since 1989 has been use to instruct national religious pioneers on matters with respect to national outline in 2005 the Councils powers were extended to go about as a supervisory body for the government 3) Council of Guardians of the physical composition or Council of Guardians or Guardians Council (Shora-ye Negban-e Qanon-e Asasi) figures out if proposed transition is both sacred and re probable to Islamic law, vets competitors in prominent elections for suitability, and directs national electionFUNCTIONS OF EXECUTIVE SYSTEMNigeriaThe executive limb serves as the head of state, summoning the military and making political errands. downstairs the balanced governance system, the executive extension has the power of veto over the legislative limb, and the depravity President is the President of the Senate. Parts of the legal are designated by the executive limb, which can likewise issue pardons. Thusly, Congress can confirm that a President is unfit for office and evacuate him or her, and the Chief arbiter of the Supreme Court gets to be leader of the Senate throughout denunciation processes. because again, we might quickly layout the partic ular functions of the executive arm of government in this wayBudget PreparationInitiation of advancement tasksExecution and maintenance of the Constitution and laws made by the National AssemblyPreserving, securing and protecting the regional trustworthiness of the country, and guaranteeing strength and security, andCarrying on the business of administration in all implications including directing international relationsIranThe faqih, who practices numerous accepted executive functions, is chosen by a larger part vote of the Assembly of Experts, a 86-part assemblage of senior pastors who are chosen by well known vote at regular intervals. The Assembly assesses the work of the faqih in periodical gatherings it can release the faqih on the off chance that he is considered no more qualified. The faqih is in charge of picking the leaders of the military go and the leader of the legal, setting general state approach, proclaiming war and peace, directing the military (counting control of insights and security offices), launching and managing corrections to the constitution, and administering a mixture of herculean parastatal establishments and associations. The executive extension is headed by the president, who in practice is the second-most elevated government official. He is chosen in national elections at regular intervals and is dependant to two sequential terms. The constitution determines that the president must be a Shia Muslim. The current president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was chosen in 2005. The president chooses a few vice presidents and 21 pastors who constitute his cabinet. Serves yet not vice presidents are liable to regard by fantan. The faqih can reject a president if two-thirds of parliament votes to arraign him.SIMILARITIES AND DISSIMILARRITIES BETWEEN BOTH EXECUTIVE SYSTEMSAs indicated by the Constitution of Iran, the President is the Head of the Government who hold the powers of the Executive after the Supreme Leader. The President is chosen f or a term of 4 years by widespread suffrage. The obligations of the President incorporatesImplementation of the Constitution and for the activity of executive powers, deviation from matter identifying with Supreme LeaderThe President names and regulates the Council of MinistersCoordinates government choices, and chooses government arrangements to be set before the lawmaking bodyThe executive limb likewise incorporates a cabinet containing a board of pastors chose by the President with the endorsement of the Legislature.The Executive limb of the Government of Iran likewise contains three oversight bodies specificallyAssembly of ExpertsExpediency Council or the Council for the Discernment of ExpediencyCouncil of GuardiansThe executives of Nigeria in any administration are generally saddled with the obligations of completing varied government strategies. The executives protect and execute the constitutions that represent the elected republic of Nigeria. Under the executives (the pres idency) there are typically 3 principle arms in particularHead of service of the organizationSecretary to the governmentSTRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES some(prenominal) countries executive system has their own importance. The strengths of each executive system is that it manages all the administration work of the government bodies of both countries. The weaknesses of both countries are their hard-and-fast rules regarding work which is mostly not followed and parties do not perform their duties honestly.

Analysis of Microfinance Lending and Credit Assessment Methodology

analysis of miserable pay bestow and impute Assessment methodology littlefinance foundations (MFIs) core activities atomic number 18 driven by a social mission through homework of full range of banking of necessity to despicable people for wargonive purposes, thitherby contri merelying to the developmentl objective of distress reduction. MFIs products and services includes little- trust, little-savings, little-insurance and also remittances. Micro credence program is providing fiscal bang-up to the brusk business firm in order to engage them in income generating activities for alleviating poverty mostly to finance clear businesses agricultural imparts. Typically this type of contribute is not secured by any collateral but granted ground on the clients energy to gene ordain the necessary pecuniary means for repayment ground on his or her business activities. Most of the toll and conditions for micro source brings are flexible and painless to understand. H owever, in that location is no standard lend and creed perspicacity orderological compend utilize by MFIs. We are prompt to explore and document this enquiry spread.1.2 The Innovation and Development of Microfinance Industry in MalaysiaThe provision of micro computer address is nothing sweet in Malaysia. Poverty eradication programs involve provision of ac recognition at subsidised rate to the poor has been around since 1970s after governance of the New frugal Policy (NEP) that was instituted in 1970. The earlier micro source program was mainly carried prohibited by credit unions, co-operatives, specialised credit institutions and NGOs. The provision of small financing designated mostly to finance micro enterprises, agriculture sector for poverty reduction and to improve income of the Bumiputera. The legislation for microfinance regulation in Malaysia includes, Moneylender Act 2002, depository financial institutioning and financial Institution Act 1989, Development Financial Institution Act 2002, and Cooperatives Societies Act 1993, (Zakiah, 2004). The Microfinance business beats are based on mass market, cooperatives, monoline and distributor network (BNM, 2010).Majlis Amamah Rakyat (MARA), a council of trust to the Bumiputera and acknowledgement guarantee Corporation (CGC) are some of the pioneers to introduce micro credit to micro enterprises. The rural credit institutions comprising of Agriculture margin of Malaysia (Agrobank), Farmers Organization authorization (LLP), federal official Land Development Authority (FELDA), Rubber Industry sensitiveholders Development Authority (RISDA) and different agro-based Co-operative Societies provide micro credit for the agriculture sectors. There are also a number of non- administrational organizations (NGOs) that engage in micro credit provision (Kasim and Jayasooria, 1993). These include Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia ( draw), Yayasan Usaha Maju (YUM) and Sabah extension Corporation (SCC) in Sabah , Koperasi Kredit Rakyat (KKR) in Selangor. Tabung Ekonomi Kumpulan Usaha Niaga (TEKUN) is a government agency micro credit provider. While, Malaysian Muslim Economic Development Foundation (YaPEIM), a cooperatives institution providing Islamic microcredit program based on al-rahnu concept in Malaysia.Prior to 2003, Commercial banks involvement in microfinance program are just limited to extending lines of credit to AIM, and as a mediator for schemes such as the contribute fund for hawkers and petty traders operated by the conviction Guarantee Corporation (CGC). In May 2003, the government launched a Micro credit rating Scheme, cleaveicularly stimulating agricultural production activities as well as expanding small and medium enterprise activities. Two banking institutions that is to say Agrobank and Bank Simpanan Nasional (BSN), and AIM incur been given the responsibility to enthrall out the scheme. The scheme is collateral free, and borrowers are eligible for a maximum imp art of up to RM20,000 with interest rates charged at 4% per annum on reducing balance.The government acknowledged that development of the microfinance industry is crucial in promoting greater financial inclusion, given that almost 80 percent of the SMEs in Malaysia are micro enterprises (BNM, 2006). Thus, in August 2006, the National SME Development Council (NSDC) ratified a comprehensive microfinance institutional framework proposed by BNM, comprising banking institutions, Development finance Institutions (DFIs) and credit cooperatives to develop a sustainable microfinance industry. This mercenaryly-driven microfinance industry will musical accompaniment the existing Government-sponsored microfinance programmes. This is classic to ensure that micro enterprises relieve oneself adequate and nonstop approach to financing.Following this initiative, 10 local banks are now go microfinance products providing a channel for micro enterprises to obtain financing from the invental fi nancial systems. BSN was mandated to provide microfinance, while Bank Rakyat would provide microfinance to members of cooperatives and Agrobank would continue to provide microfinance to micro enterprises in the agriculture and agro-based sector. Banking institutions with their extensive nationwide network of furcatees would ensure wider outreach of microfinance. In addition, BNM proposed the establishment of the Malaysia Cooperative Societies Commission to strengthen the role of credit cooperatives in providing credit to micro enterprises. The new comprehensive microfinance indusry framework in Malaysia is as isllustrated in add-in 1 below. remit 1 The Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in Malaysia none-Bank MFIsBank MFIsAmanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM)Yayasan Usaha Maju (YUM)Koperasi Kredit Rakyat (KKR)Kooperasi Kredit Pekerja (KKP)Partners in Enterprise Malaysia (PiEM)Tabung Ekonomi Kumpulan Usaha Niaga (TEKUN)Council of Trust to Bumiputera (MARA)Malaysian Building Society Berhad (MB SB)Sabah denotation Corporation (SCC)Agrobank Bhd (AgroBank)Bank Kerjasama Rakyat Bhd (Bank Rakyat)Bank Simpanan Nasional (BSN)Alliance Bank Bhd (Alliance Bank)AMBank Bhd (AM Bank)CIMB Bank Bhd (CIMB)EONCAP Islamic Bank Bhd (EON Bank)Public Bank Bhd (PBB)United everywhereseas Bank Bhd (UOB) reference work Guarantee Corporation Bhd (CGC)Source adapted from Jasman et. al., (2010)These financial institutions have adoptive different business shapes and strategies that leverage on the institutional strengths and niches to view ass the credit needs of micro enterprises. A number of financial institutions have adopted a mass market puzzle whereby the financial institution provides micro credit products through its existing branch network. Others, like Bank Rakyat, have adopted a cooperative model which provides microfi nance to its members. Some have employed the distributor network model, which leverages on the distributive capabilities of strategic business partners. other is the monoline model with a dedicated microfinance operation, imageed with its own distinct stigmatization and processes designed to uniquely appeal to micro enterprises.Table 2 relative abstract of Non-Bank Microcredit Programs in MalaysiaCategoryNon-Government Organization (NGOs)Government AgencyCoopeativesInstitutionAIMYUMTEKUNMARASCCYaPEIM put GroupLow income comm unityBumiputra micro entrepreneursBumiputra mincroentrepreneursAgroculture based entrepreneursPretty tradersGold financingPrograme abduceIkhtiar MicrocreditGeneral 1 2 and Group Fund lendwordTekun Microcredit ancestry Financing companionship Loan SchemeAl-Rahnu Micro CreditAge Limit18 geezerhood in a higher placeWomen 18 to 55 years18 60 years21 60 yearsLoan Amountmo Nil max RM20,000Min RM100Max RM20,000Min NilMax RM50,000Min 1,000Max RM10,000Min 1,000Max RM10,000Up to RM25,000Loan time period6 months to 3 years6 months to 5 years6 months to 5 yearsUp to 4 yearsUp to 3 yearsProcessing Period21 ageN/a 35 long time11 daysN/a quittance PeriodWeeklyDaily, periodic periodicMonthlyMonthlyMonthly elicit Rate / Charge10%p.a4% 11%p.a5% 6%p.a1.25%p.m10%p.a0.1% 0.75%Program SupportsInsurance telephone line Training business sector Training, Compulsory DepositsBusiness trainingCompulsory savingsAdvisory Business Matchingloan scheme for group of 5 or 6 individuals.Source UNDP(2008), and Respective Institutions websites. Note No published data lendable for KKR, KKP and PiEM microfiance program details.Table 3 Comparative Analysis of Banks Financial Institutions Microcredit Programs in MalaysiaCategoryBanking Instititions (BIs)Development Financial Institutions (DFIs)InstitutionABBAMBankCIMBEONCAPiPBBUOBCGCAgrobankBSNBank RakyatProgram NamePersonal FinancingAmMikroCash ExpressPersonal FinancingPB Micro FinanceEasiCashDAGSModal Usahawan 1BSN Teman NiagaMikro-iTarget GroupMicro enterprisesMicro enterprisesMicro enterprisesMicro enterprisesMicro enterprisesMicro enterprisesSMEsMicro en terprisesMicro enterprisesMicro enterprisesAge Limit25 60 years18 60 years21 60 yearsRetired civil servants25 60 years21 55 years21 60 years21 60 years18 65 yearsLoan AmountRM2,000 RM50,000RM3,000 RM50,000RM3,000 RM50,000RM5,000 RM50,000RM3,000 RM50,000RM5,000 RM50,000RM50,000 RM3.0MRM1,000 RM50,000RM5,000 RM50,000RM1,000 RM50,000Loan Period6 months 5 years1 5 years6 months 5 years3 15 years1 5 years2 5 years3 months 5 years1 5 years1 months 5 yearsProcessing Period2 days5 days2 days5 days6 days7 days4 days6 days10 daysRepayment PeriodMonthlyMonthlyMonthlyMonthlyMonthlyMonthlyMonthlyMonthlyMonthlyInterest Rate / Charge5.05%p.a2.5%p.m2% 3%p.m2% 3%p.m0.9%p.m0.5% 3.5%p.a4%p.a4%p.a4%p.aSource Comparative table on microfinanc product features (BNM, 2010) and Respective Insritutions website1.3 Problem Statements Research issues in Microcredit modify combines the science of obtaining and analysing the facts of a loan request and the art of making judgements a bout that training, the feasibility of the business, and the credibleness of the borrower. Experienced lenders focus on the key business issues quickly, determine what in shaping is needed, and then make prompt decisions based on that information. Developing telephone credit judgement takes time and experience development lending to small businesses by the book is difficult and rarely results in a tincture loan portfolio.There is no formula for determining creditworthiness. The loan military officer must assemble and evaluate information and then determine what the sinless picture looks like. Traditional bank lenders refer to the Four Cs of lending Credit, Capacity, Collateral, and Character. Development lending uses the same rigorous credit judging principles, but applies them to situations in which the lender must rely on borrower character and capital flow from the business. The loan industriousness and the first gear meeting with the borrower are the first screen of wh ether a business is a potential candidate for microcredit. set-back with the first meeting, the lender must evaluate the quality of the business deal, the rival with the borrowers experience and capacity, and whether the financing amount and structure is appropriate.1.4 Research Questions/ObjectivesThe questions/objectives of this study areRQ1 To investigate the microcredit lending methodology of commercial-driven and government funded MFIsRQ2 To investigate the credit judging methodology of commercial-driven and government funded MFIsRQ3 Is there any different mingled with lending and credit assessment methodology of commercial-driven and government funded MFIs?1.5 Significance of this studyThis newspaper aim to understand, comparatively analyze and document the MFIs lending and credit application assessment methodology of both the commercial-driven and government-funded MFIs microcredit program. This study will contribute to enrich the existing literature related to microcred it and microenterprises financing with specific reference to Malaysia environment.1.6 Limitations pile involving all selected active MFIs based in west Malaysia. This paper only foc utilize on microcredit lending and credit assessment methodology for micro enterprises only.1.7 Organization of ReportThis paper is organized into four parts, after the introduction, part two contains the literature review related to microfinance lending and credit assessment methodology for micro enterprises. Part three describing data collection and analysis methodology and the last part contains concluding remarks and recommendations.LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 surveil of Microfinance Delivery Methodologies (REFINE)The Review of Rural Finance Innovations in Asia-Pacific Region have identified and documented the microfinance methodologies used in Asia. These methodologies include Grameen Bank joining for Social Advancement (ASA) SHG gene linkage Banking Unit Desas (Village Banks) of the Bank Rakyat Indone sia (BRI) and Mixed model and miscellaneous method (Sourcexxx)Grameen Bank model The Grameen model is the most usual and widely replicated model in Asia. It consistently achieves outreach both in knowledge and magnitude and high repayment rates (98 per cent). The untimely replicators as azoic as 1989 were India, Malaysia and the Philippines others include China and Indonesia. The model focuses on poor peoples access to credit, with women as a priority small loans repaid in hebdomadal instalments eligibility for higher(prenominal) loan amount for succeeding loans loans for income-generating activities financing activities chosen by borrowers themselves and forming solidarity groups. Over time, the replicators modified the model to suit local contexts.ASA model ASA is another model from Bangladesh. In the 1990s, ASA gained recognition for achieving a repayment rate of 99 per cent. In Asia, the model has been replicated in India, Indonesia and the Philippines. While loan produc ts are the same as with the Grameen model, the difference is that it does not impose the group co-liability. The model also requires that the borrowers form groups of 25 to 30 members. The model uses a unique standardized branch approach which enables cost savings and efficiency in service sales talk the branch has no need for additional personnel for cashier and accountant, alter it to fully cover costs even after 9 to12 months.SHG Linkage Banking model The SHG Linkage Banking model is an outcome of the Regional Linkage Banking syllabus which is an initiative supported by APRACA and Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) in the early 1990s. Using this model, NABARD of India achieved the largest scale and outreach in the countries supported by this programme. The approach is linking SHGs with banking institutions for loan and deposit services. Most SHGs are formed by NGOs or government agencies with financial support from NABARD. One difference between this mo del and the Grameen and ASA models is that sooner obtaining their first loan, the members of SHGs are required to mobilize savings first. They usually arrest at a 11 or 21 loan- to-savings ratio, increasing to 41 in succeeding loan cycles. Bank loans are wholesaled to SHGs, which in turn lend to individual members following terms and policies set by the SHGs themselves. The SHG is the dominant microfinance methodology in India (Sinha, 2003).Unit Desas model Unit Desas are village banks of the Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI). The bank provides loans for any income-generating operation from 3 to 24 months for working capital and 36 months for investment capital. The describe repayment rate is 99 per cent. Charging market interest rates enabled the unit banks to be profitable and operationally self-sustainable units.Mixed model and mixed method As a result of cross-dissemination of various methodologies and experimentation by microfinance institutions, there is an emerging trend of a dopting a mixed model and a mixed method. The former combines features of two or more models under one approach. The latter(prenominal) uses different methodologies for different client segments. For example, in the Philippines, microfinance institutions use an approach called GraSa which identifies clients and forms groups using the Grameen model while removing the co-liability requirement, which is a feature of the ASA model.Overall, the common thread among the trump practices is the shift from mere credit to providing broader and sustainable financial services. While there are variations, there is an increasing emphasis on attaining a sustainable fund base, cost recovery of invested funds and efficient and responsive financial services to rural clients.2.2 Traditional Approach of Creditworthiness Assessment for Small BorrowersAn important role of credit markets is to screen borrowers and allocate credit efficiently based on their creditworthiness. Traditionally, banks have play ed a dominant role in doing so. One of the reasons posited for this has been that banks have the financial expertise to effectively intermediate capital (Diamond, 1994). The conjectural and empirical literature has argued that banks do very little cover for small borrowers and rely excessively on collateral. In addition, recent theoretical literature has also highlighted that the screening role may be interrupt performed by markets with some participants, as opposed to banks (Boot and Thakor, 1997). Alternative peer-to-peer credit markets have recently started gaining popularity in lending to smaller borrowers such as individuals and small firms, both in developed and growing economies (Rajkamal I., et. al., 2009)While prior look for has provided substantial evidence of elevated default risk among lower-income, minority, and less responsible borrowers (see, for example, Avery et al., 1996, Deng, Quigley, and Van come out, 1996, Berkovec et al., 1998, Pennington-Cross and Nich ols, 2000), recent studies also suggest offsets to those risks via the slower prepayment speeds of targeted borrower groups (see, for example, Kelly, 1995, Van Order and Zorn, 2002, Archer, Ling, and McGill, 2002).Table 1 abbreviation of Criteria considered important by Bankers in Assessing Small Business Borrower Loan coversAssessment CriteriaAuthor(s)/Year body politicOwners Personal CharatcteristicsBusiness Ability(Fertuck, 1982)Honesty(Fertuck, 1982)Trading Experience(Deakins Hussain, 1994 Fl and so oner, 1995) omnibusial Experience(Jones, 1982 Memon, 1984)Credit History(Jones, 1982 Memon, 1984)Quality of guidance(Rosli, 1995)MalaysiaLeverage and Security Position geared wheel(Deakins Hussain, 1994 Fletcher, 1995 Berry, Grant and Jarvis, 2001 Binks and Ennew, 1996)Collateral(Ulrich Arlow, 1981)Guarantee(Deakins Hussain, 1994 Fletcher, 1995)Risk of Default(Rosli, 1995)MalaysiaOwners and Business Financialsinitial Capial(Jones, 1982 Memon, 1984)Financial Strengths(Fertuck, 1982 )Bank Lending PoliciesBank Policy(Berger and Udell, 2002)Relationship(Berger and Udell, 2002)SummaryTable 2 Negative figures Resulting in Rejection of Small Business Loans ApplicationAssessment CriteriaAuthor(s)/YearCountryOwners Personal CharatcteristicsLack of Competecnce(Buttner Rosen, 1992 Desmond, 1991)Lack of Management Skills(Buttner Rosen, 1992)Lack of Entrepreneurial Skills Experience(Buttner Rosen, 1992 Desmond, 1991)Owners and Business Financials scurvy Cash Flows(Struck Glassman, 1983) miserable Earnings Records(Fertuck, 1982) meagre Turnover(Read, 1998)Poor Credit RatingsLeverage PositionsPoor Collateral(Fertuck, 1982)Insufficient Owners Equity(Struck Glassman, 1983)Past Due in Credit(Struck Glassman, 1983)Excessive Loan Requests(Desmond, 1991)Gearing too high(Desmond, 1991)Business PlansInsufficient Market Research(Buttner Rosen, 1992)Incomplete Business Plans(Buttner Rosen, 1992)Other FactorsBad clock(Buttner Rosen, 1992)Summary2.3 Innovation in Small Business Lendin g The prowess and Science of MicrocreditThe history of microcredit program can be traced back since eighteenth century where Credit Coperatives and charities provided small entrepreneurs in Europe (Hollis et. al., 1998). According to Hollis et. Al., a notable microcredit program in europe includes a fund created by Jonathan Swift, a novelist and the Irish Reproductive Loan Fund Institution.In developing economies, it is argued that among others absence of access to credit is presumed to be the cause for the failure of the poor to come out of poverty. Meeting the gap between demand and tag on of credit in the formal financial institutions frontier has been challenging (Von Pischke, 1991). In fact, the gap is not aroused merely because of shortage of loan-able fund to the poor rather it arise because it is costly for the formal financial institutions to lend to the poor. Lending to the poor involves high transaction cost and risks associated with information asymmetries and moral ha zards (Stiglitz and Weiss, 1981). Nevertheless, in several(prenominal) developing economies governments have intervened, through introduction of microfinance institutions to minimize the gap then allow the poor access credits through provision of so called microcredit.Microcredit is defined simply as small-scale credit, most typically for less-advantaged individuals. In practice, microcredit is most frequently used to refer to credit provided specifically for the purpose of starting a small business and there is other microcredit products catering for other consumption needs of poor individual. The various forms of micro-credit systems have proven successful in delivering credit to the poor and ensuring high rate of repayment when compared to the formal channels. Because micro-credit systems have been effective in reaching the poor, many developing countries have set up special financial institutions that all directly provide credit to SHGs and the facilitating NGOs or help refinan ce commercial and cooperative banks that provide the credit. These national micro-finance institutions are in turn funded by international agencies as well as the national government (source xxxx)Microfinance Lending MethodologyMicro-lending methodology in practice is appearently different to mainstream banking. The distinguish characteristics are as follows (i) non traditional creditworthiness assessment criteria (ii) non traditional collateral accepted (iii) loan officers are not necessarily bankers (iv) credit is provided along with business support services. Other distinguishing features between them are as tabulated belowTable 3 Comparison of Micro-finance and Formal Banking Lending to Micro EnterprisesCharacteristicsMicrofinanceFormal BankingSize of loanSmall/tiny size of creditMedium/large creditDuration of loanShort durationMedium and long scrimpingEmphasis on thrift as well as loans localize on loan onlyScreening and MonitoringGroup formation and informal methodsFormal Proc eduresEnforcement of RepaymentsStepped or sequential loans, Peer pressure and weekly repaymentsCollateral and legal pressured for repaymentsNature of OrganizationSocial organizational formCommercial organization formMotivationSelf-help motivatedProfit motivatedOutreachAccess to poor without collateral (all members)Access limitedLending MethodCash-flows based lendingAsset-based lendingAnalysisField visitsDesk AnalysisCredit AdministrationFlexible and personalizedStandardizedSource Adapted with midification fromxxx2.3.2 Microfinance Loan Assessment and Credit Analysis MethodologyAn important function of credit markets is to screen borrowers and allocate credit efficiently based on borrowers creditworthiness (Iyer, et. al., 2009). The credit analysis is defined as a process of establishing the current creditworthiness of loan applicants and forecasting the trends in its development. Top priority goals and stages in the bank credit analysis are determined. (Feschijan, 2008). The analysi s of the creditworthiness involves preliminary study of the factors and prerequisites which can ingrain adversely the duly repayment of the credit. When analyzing creditworthiness, along with the required prerequisites for creditworthiness it is necessary to carry out a comprehensive study of the factors that determine it. It is believed that creditworthiness depends on several major factors the borrowers efficiency, his reputation, his capacity for profit making, the value of his assets, the state of the economic situation, his profitability, etc. In order to conduct a thorough study of the above mentioned, it is necessary to use a number of indicators for the credit analysis (Feschijan, 2008).Table 3 Empirical Evidence of Microcredit Repayment DeterminantsDeterminant factorsAuthor(s)/YearCountryRegular supervise, audits, high repayment frequency, having group savings depositsDeininger and Liu (2009)IndiaClose monitoring and close relationshp with borrowersRoslan et. Al. (2007)Ma laysiaThreats of sanctions, borrower incur less transactions costsBhatt and Tang (2002) ground forcesGender of the borrower, type of business activity, amount of loan, repayment period and trainningRosalan and M. Zaini (2009)Malaysia word liability, dinamic and progressive lending, Peer monitoring, social ties and social connections, self-selection, income shocks, social sanction and cooperation, loan size, infrastructure and local economic environment, group rules and regulations, group size, age of the group, helper offered by bank, gender, local culture, group homogeneity, role of group leaderBakshi (2008)N/a (literature review)Group gender decomposition (group with more females)Anthony and Horne (2003)USA research METHODOLOGYData Specification and Collection MethodTarget respondentsTarget respondents will comprises of the following selected microfinance institutions (MFIs) which constitutes both the non-bank MFIs and bank-MFIsCategoryNon-Bank MFIsBank-MFIsOrganizationMARAYUMAI MTEKUNSCCBSNAgroBankBank RakyatTarget RespondentsCredit Manager/ ships officerCredit Manager/OfficerCredit Manager/OfficerCredit Manager/OfficerCredit Manager/OfficerCredit Manager/OfficerCredit Manager/OfficerCredit Manager/OfficerNo. of Respondents4040404040404040Total respondents = 320A personally administrated survey was employed in this study. Target respondents were comprises of credit managers and officers of the above selected MFIs in west Malaysia.Questionnaire DesignTable 3.1 The Structured Questionnaire DesignSectionCategoryRemarksSection ARespondent ProfileThis subdivision is designed to cater information on respondents demographic profile.Section BLending MethodologyThis section concentrates on pen the lending methodology of MFIsSection CCredit AssessmentThis section is designed to explore microcredit assessment criteria employed by MFIsData Analysis MethodsDescriptive Statistics AnalysisDescriptive statistics analysis used to explore the characteristics of the respon dents.Factor AnalysisFactor analysis use to analyse and determine the evidentiary important factors for microlenders in analysing microenterprises loan applications.Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)ANOVA is used to established statistical significant of differences of lending and credit assessment methodologies between commercially-driven and government-funded MFIs.ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONSDescriptive Statistics AnalysisRespondent demographic factorsFactor AnalysisRQ1 To investigate the microcredit lending methodology of commercial-driven and government funded MFIsRQ2 To investigate the credit assessment methodology of commercial-driven and government funded MFIs