Freud and Klein, Jung, and Rogers Theories Comparison

Freud and Klein, Jung, and Rogers Theories ComparisonIntroductionThis look for re overtakes the main beliefs of four psychological thinkers, Freud and Klein, Jung, and Rogers, and 1 psychological access, Trans virtuallyoneal Psychology. In each case I sketch the theory, in like manner noning points of agreement and disagreement betwixt them, some(a) snips drawing on my own experience.Each theory is reviewed under the following headingsMain root words sour of and with the therapistSimilarities and differences with other views chase the discussion of each theory, I disco biscuit some concluding remarks.Freud and Kleins psychoanalysisSigmund Freud was born(p)(p) in Moravia in 1856, and died in England in 1939. His primary training was medical and scientific, and he consistently maintained that his theory was to be tacit as a scientific maven. Among the most important scientific establish to works on his work came from the principle of the saving of cipher in physics. accord to Helmholz the total quantity of readiness in a system is constant unless new susceptibility is added, or energy is lost, the existing quantity finish only change in signifier and distri justion. Freuds initial creative insight can be checked as supposing that valet de chambre psychological science can be understood as an energy system. This enabled him to offer an explanatory account of the behaviour of neurotic concourse in terms of the causes of their behaviour, instead of supposing that this behaviour was mysterious, random or inexplicable (Brown 1961, p2-3 Thornton 2006).Melanie Klein was born in Vienna in 1882 (making her a generation younger than Freud) and died in London in 1960. Klein was a pi one and only(a)er in applying psychoanalytic techniques to baberen, maintaining that embolden behaviour could provide the comparable sort of data as gigantic-minded association, and as well as argued (an idea that Freud came to accept) that people were also dr iven towards death, or the finishing of livelihood, as well as to the preservation of life (Brown 1961, p71f).Freud revised and limited his ideas repeatedly during his long cargoner. It would take more(prenominal) space than this whole essay to review the changes, and I have other thinkers and approaches to discuss. In the following sub-section I outline some of the central commitments of Freud as they remain influential in practice today, making (for reasons of space) only limited reference to Klein.Main ideasFollowing Brown (1961) the following atomic estimate 18 the main components of Freuds views(1) Psychic determinism Freud was godlike by the principle of conservation of energy in physics, and maintained that gracious psychology was an energy system. What this meant specific altogethery was that behaviours that had previously been regarded as accidental or significanceless (including ambitiousnesss, tics, yawning, paralyses and slips of the tongue) could be operaten as possible symptoms the psychoanalytic observer could judge to interpret them as symptoms on the hypothesis that they represented energy that readiness not have been allowed to itself themselves directly.(2) The role of the unconscious The symptomatic individual is typically unaw atomic number 18 of the causes of her or his symptoms, and this is post because they atomic number 18 not the sort of things that the typeface wants to acknowledge. The thought of a desired outcome or action is quash because it is not acceptable, merely the energy associated with it has to go somewhere (see (1) above) and so is substituted for something else with a non-obvious kind. (If it was obvious, and so obvious to the unhurried role, it wouldnt successfully be suppress.) Work is inevitable to make the processes app arent, and to determine what to do close them.(3) Goal-oriented character of behaviour totally behaviour is for something, and repressed wishes cannot primarily be release d in ways unlike to the target desire. This is purpose of why symptoms can be informative. Freud describes a muliebrity who had been disgusted by a person allowing a dog to salute from a glass, that refused to express the disgust because it would have been rude and had obtain unable to drink water from supply herself. This refusal was, he claims, uncovered as a symptom by following up on her mussitate or so her lady friend during free-association under hypnosis, where the forgotten episode was recalled, and afterwards this the symptom disappeared (1962, p 36).(4) The developmental or historical approach in that location is a characteristic cycle to tender psychological development, closely associated with sex activity. get off here is understood widely, to include the full range of pleasurable ace over various regions of the system. Freud maintained that ordinarily people went through a series of stages, the first three broadly associated with a region of the body or al (first 18 months), then anal (18 months to 3 years), then phallic (ages 3 to 6 years), and a latency period during which pregenital desires were largely repressed (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p35). Finally during adolescence a genital stage begins. Each of these stages involves various kinds of negate (over access to the breast, toilet training, etc.) and these formative conflicts are, according to Freud, often the basis of by and by neurosis. Also we face an on sack conflict between our instincts (for pleasure and life, only also for aggressive conflict and death) and the hires of social and institutional alert, which begin in the family. This conflict between libido and reality is a major source of repression, but makes individuals un liable(predicate) to know why they are behaving as they are. The normal or healthy individual is not immune to the conflict (being so, for Freud, would require abandoning civilisation, or lacking the instincts) but is more flexible and flue nt at handling the conflict, more aware of what she or he is doing when denying an instinctual urge, and better able to get in in determining how restrained urges can be substituted or managed without repression.Klein (Fordham 1995, p47f), as noted, pioneered the application of analytic techniques with small children, partly by observing their antic behaviour, and partly through discussion.1 Fordham describes one of her case studies, of a child called Richard, during the certify world war. Richard was ten years old at the time. Klein interprets his conflicting responses to parents (e.g. a castration anxiety related to being lied to about(predicate) a circumcision procedure Fordham 1995, p51) and his construction of an account of the insides of peoples bodies, including his own, and that of his parents, curiously that of his beget prior to his birth.Work of and with the therapistThe Freudian analyst assistants partly by listening, or patently by being there plot of ground the patient free-associates and works through the things she or he says during the process. In Freuds view this process could enable the unconscious to be brought to consciousness, and patients come to understand how it is that they partly resist abandoning their symptoms (because theyre goal-oriented, even if non-optimal). The hope is that the unsymptomatic individual will be better able to satisfy her or his drives.The analyst does more than simply listen, of course, and her or his questioning and participation uses or facilitates a variety of procedures (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p39), including foeman, clarification, interpretation and working through, which are intended to help uncover repression (manifest in resistance to free association), and to manage the common transfer where uncovered drives are directed at the analyst, who is a highly satisfactory and sympathetic target for them.The healthy individual, for Freud, is one who is flexibly able to voyage the inevitable conflict between ego and reality. As Adam Phillips puts itFreudians see we are inevitably go against both from within and without our egos are violated by our desires and what happens to us. So the Freudian cannot imagine a life without defences, but only a life spent trying to protect himself from this life in order to be able to go on living it, with sufficient pleasure (2000, p161-2).Similarities and differences with other viewsFreuds work exerted massive influence on later psychology, and he interacted directly with a number of the figures Ill consider later. Im going to use this similarities and differences sub-section cumulatively, as I add detail about the different theories, and so have no more to say in this first round.I find one of Freuds most basic ideas, the psychic determinism, interesting and exciting. If hes correct, then a skilled observer can find intend in patterns of behaviour that would otherwise be regarded as random noise. Ive been given reason to observe patterns in my own behaviour more thoughtfully as a result of this Im not generally a tardy person, and now when I forget something that I need for some unpleasant task (a piece of paper I need for some boring administrative matter at the bank) or am late more than once for a meeting a particular person, I at least wonder whether these episodes arent in some way motivated, and what Im both remembering and forgetting plot of land I do it.Jungs analytic psychologyCarl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875, where he died in 1961. He initially collaborated intensely with Freud, but in 1910 resigned as Chairman of the International Psychoanalytical Association. His approach is called analytical psychology partly in order to make crap that it involves a departure from Freuds psycho-analysis.Main ideasJung shared with Freud the notion that an important part of the psychology of an individual person was the unconscious, and that dreams and other behaviour provides clues about what was go ing on there. As Fordham (1995, p79f) notes, Jung was dissatisfied with what he took to be the mechanical record of Freudian explanations, and preferred to think of the process of analysis as one of interpretation, leading to understanding of meaning rather than causal processes. He regarded symbols are some(prenominal) more important than Freud did. In addition he disagreed with Freud about the importance of the libido and sexual drives, maintaining that, especially in later life, people tended towards an excess stage of development, which involved realisation of the self in relation to the incarnate unconscious which is an inherited part of the unconscious, shared with others. This process was, according to Jung, probatoryly spiritual and even spiritual.This notion of the collective unconscious was a clear departure from Freud. Jung claimed to find recurring and universal archetypes (of key processes such as death and marriage Brooke 1991, p16) in world mythologies, folklor e and religion, and maintained that dreams should be construe in the context of this common inheritance, a process that he called expansion (Fordham 1995, p87). For Jung, neurosis was often related to a failure to pursue self-knowledge which in turn involved achieving a better take of connectedness with what he took to be human universals.Fordham quotes a passage from Jung illustrating his rejection of aspects of Freuds viewThe symptoms of a neurosis are not simply the effects of long- quondam(prenominal) causes, whether infantile sexuality or the infantile urge to power they are also attempts at a new synthesis of life unsuccessful attempts, let it be added in the same breath, but attempts nevertheless, with a core of value and meaning. They are seeds that fail to sprout owing to the inclement conditions of an intragroup and outer nature (Quoted in Fordham 1995, p81).Work of and with the therapistAlthough some of the tools of the Jungian therapist (free association, dream anal ysis) are the same as those of the Freudian, there are important differences in the point and intended outcome of the process.Because the Jungian believes in the collective unconscious, dreams and associations are not understood merely as expressions of a constrained energy system, but also as indications of a relationship with universal sources of human meaning, including spiritual ones. Interpretation is partly a process of amplification (Fordham 1995, p87) cognizant by the therapists understanding of the collective unconscious. As Fordham notes, Jung did not enter into details of the analyst-patient relation and suggests that Jung may not have been especially interested in this, relying rather heavily on the analysts native intelligence (Fordham 1995, p127).Similarities and differences with other viewsThe main differences I can see between Jung and Freud are the ones Ive noted Jung was less impressed by the role of the libido, and more inclined to take hard the spiritual marro w of what his subjects said. The healthy subject after Jungian therapy is generically similar to the patient after psycho-analysis, except that for Jung such a person, if an adult, will be volitionally involved in the spiritual. Fordham quotes Jung saying that the fascination which psychic life exerts upon in advance(p) man holds the promise of a far-reaching spiritual change in the western sandwich world (Fordham 1995, p91).The dispute with Freud regarding whether analysis produced causal explanations or interpretations seems to me like it could be unnecessary. A symptom could at the same time have a cause (because of being the substituted expression of a desire) and a symbolic meaning (because associations between ideas help determine what gets substituted). It seems right to take somewhat more seriously the spiritual experience of people (Ill say more about this under transpersonal therapy) but that doesnt have to mean supposing that what subjects report is true. Freuds patient ( expound above) was for a while disgusted by all glasses of water, but not because there was actually anything wrong with them.Rogers Person Centred TherapyCarl Rogers was born in the United States of America in 1902, where he also died in 1987. His work, which therefore came after the main contributions of Freud and Jung depict above, emphasised the human-centered idea that therapists technical skills were less important than their humanity, which he understood to require bringing dispositions such as stark(prenominal) corroborative regard and genuineness to the therapeutic process.Main ideasAccording to Rogers people are driven by a single disposal toward actualization (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p142), which is a design to develop capacities so as to maintain or enhance the beingness. This intention needs to be able to tell what maintains or enhances, and and then Rogers postulated an organismic valuing process that distinguishes between experiences that are good a nd disobedient for growth. This tendency leads us to distinguish ourselves from the world (this is roughly similar to some of Freuds thinking about the formation of infant identity through recognising the liberty of the world) and come to need positive regard for ourselves.Our main source of regard, not only positive, to begin with is other people, especially parents. We learn that their approval depends to some extent on what we do, and there can be a mis-match between what is actualizing in general (in the sense of good for growth by the lights of the organismic valuation process) and what is actualizing in the sense of leading to positive regard from others. To put one of my own experiences in these terms, we ability learn that we get positive regard by not taking the last cup-cake, even though we intensely want it and are bewildered by the fact that zilch else seems to want it at all. This tension creates conditions of worth (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p143) that distort t he expression of the tendency to actualise.Work of and with the therapistThe aim of therapy according to Rogers is to provide a relationship which the customer/patient may use for his own personal growth (Rogers 1961, p32), which is a matter of freeing up the tendency we all have to actualisation. According to Prochaska and Norcross (2003, p146f) that there are five conditions besides being in the relationship itself for therapeutic personality changes pic, Genuineness, Unconditional Positive Regard, Accurate Empathy, Perception of Genuineness. Vulnerability concerns the thickenings awareness of her or his own state of incongruence and hence vulnerability to anxiety. Genuiness is the required state of the therapist, who should be freely and deeply themselves (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p147) while in the therapeutic process, to be aware of her or his own feelings, in so far as possible, rather than presenting an outward faade of one attitude, while actually holding another (R ogers 1961, p33). At the same time the therapist must express the unconditional positive regard which is the disciplinary to the conditional positive regard from others that Rogerians take to be the cause of incongruence, a process in turn demanding accurate empathy of the clients inner world (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p147) which involves not filtering empathy through personal reactions (and so is an additional demand over and above genuineness. Finally the client must realise the genuineness of the therapist.In this environment, it is up to the client what to talk about. In this non-directive (as in, not directed by the therapist) environment, the client will, according to Rogers, realise a capacitor that everyone has to move forward toward maturity (Rogers 1961, p35). The result is supposed to be that the client becomes more integrated, more effective and to show fewer of the characteristics which are usually termed neurotic or psychotic, and more of the characteristics o f the healthy, well-functioning person (Rogers 1961, p36). Part of this depends on the unconditional positive regard of the therapist, through which the client can come to value her or his incongruence. In a hypothetical monologue from a client in therapy, Rogers writes unless now that Ive shared some of this bad side of me, he despises me. Im sure of it, but its strange I can find little evidence of it. Do you suppose that what Ive told him isnt so bad? Is it possible that I need not be ashamed of it as a part of me? I no longer feel that he despises me. It makes me feel that I want to go further, exploring me, perhaps expressing more of myself (Rogers 1961, p67).When the process works, the subject becomes a fully functioning individual (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p156) who trusts her or his own actual delirious responses to what they experience, and the courses of action that they spontaneously feel are best. Such a person lives fully in the present not filtering the present through past hurts, or leaving any of the present out.Similarities and differences with other viewsA Freudian would likely object that the Rogerian approach involving unconditional positive regard provides a transference relationship that has all the elements of an i disperseized maternal love (Prochaska and Norcross 2003, p164), and also think that Rogers style of therapy missed out on important tools (free association) that Freud had showed could be useful. That said, the subject at the end of successful Rogerian therapy is similar to that supposed by Freud aware of his or her own actual emotions, authentically accepting of how they deal with them, not limited by distortions from previous experience. Some of the conflicts Freudians think are important (for example over access to the breast, or toilet training) can be described in terms of conditional positive regard. It also seems to me that Rogers has done a great deal of good by devoting so much attention to thinking about the relationship between client and therapist, and the demands on the therapist.Freudians would probably also agree with the fact that Rogers apparently didnt take religion very seriously. A Jungian, on the other hand, might complain that Rogers doesnt take the spiritual anywhere nearly seriously enough, and that his approach neglects important information about human psychology that are to be found in mythology and folklore. (Earlier in a passage quoted above, Jung notes that new-fashioned man has become unhistorical (Fordham 1995, p91).Finally, Rogers concern with selfactualisation, though, seems to me to make too much of what might be a specifically North American, or substance class, pre-occupation with the individual (Prochaska and Norcross make a similar point 2003, p164).Transpersonal PsychologyTranspersonal psychology is the name for a wide range of different approaches to therapy. Unlike the approaches discussed above, it is not primarily associated with a single influential figure. Lajoie and Shapiro (1992) reviewed some of the literature over the period 1969-1991, and report no less than forty different descriptions of what transpersonal psychology amounts to. Although in some ways the term is new, some argue that the ideas it stands for are not. Kasprow and Scotton, for example, trace the roots of transpersonal psychology at least to William James who had argued that the tribulation of spiritual experience should be its effect on people, rather than pre-emptively supposing with Freud that it was a kind of regressive defence (Kasprow and Scotton 1999, p12, 13, 15). They claim that what distinguishes transpersonal psychology, and gives it its name, is concern with delicateies associated with developmental stages beyond that of the adult ego, and it is this movement beyond the ego that merits the label transpersonal. As we saw above, Jung too was concerned with psychological development beyond adulthood, and with secluded experience (Fordham 1995, p 135). He is often noted as an influence on transpersonal psychology. Another key figure is Abraham Maslow, born in 1908 and who died in 1970, so with a productive life largely overlapping with that of Rogers.Main ideas the like Rogers, Maslow was a kind of human-centered Rogers whose client centred therapy is a form of humanistic psychology, and he and Maslow agreed that people had innate potential and desire for self-actualisation. Maslow is especially famous for his periodically revised hierarchy of needs describing a number of groupings of needs he took to be common to all people, some of which (e.g. for sleep) inevitable to be satisfied before others. In the original formulations (Maslow 1943, 1954) the top level of needs was for self-actualization which included morality and creativity. Later in his life he proposed that the top level included a state that some self-actualised people might achieve, which he called transcendence (Maslow 1971). Transcendence here is self-transc endence, and so refers to the same phenomenon as the transpersonal in transpersonal psychology. As Kasprow and Scotton (1999, p13) put it, transpersonal approaches are concerned with accessing and integrate developmental stages beyond the adult ego and with fostering higher human development and this involves dealing with matters relating to human values and spiritual experience including self-sacrifice and profound feelings of connectedness.Work of and with the therapistBecause transpersonal psychology is a large collection of approaches, there is more variation in how practitioners work. This makes it very difficult to offer a short summary. In general practice is humanist very simply put its Rogers with a spiritual aspect, or Rogers mixed with some elements of Jung, including focus on symbolic interpretation of imagery. But there are a number of distinctive tools used by some practitioners that are not generally used by proponents of the approaches described above, including use of altered states of consciousness besides those of hypnosis and being on the therapists couch, including by means of some of the tools used traditionally and in shamanistic and religious practice to achieve altered states, including fasting, dancing, prayer, relaxation, sex, ritual and drugs (Kasprow and Scotton 1999, p18). attached the focus on transcendent experience, it isnt surprising that a significant fraction of transpersonal practice relates to experiences like bereavement (Golsworthy and Coyle, 2001)2 or that it has been found generally useful in pastoral counselling (Sutherland, 2001).3Similarities and differences with other viewsNow that all four approaches have been described, it is possible to say something more general about relationships between them. Freud and Rogers are both relatively secular in orientation. Jung and Transpersonal psychology both take spiritual and transcendent experience more seriously. Rogers and at least some transpersonal psychologists (in cluding Maslow) are clearly humanist. Despite their differences, they have in some ways similar conceptions of the healthy human being, who is free from some forms of conflict, and able to cope flexibly with life. They differ on what the world is like, in particular over the status of transcendent experience, and over the degree of personal identity to be aimed for (with Rogers seeming the most individualistic).ReferencesBrooke, R. 1991. Jung and Phenomenology, London Routledge.Brown, J.A.C. 1961. Freud and the Post-Freudians, London Pelican.Fordham, M. 1995. Freud, Jung, Klein The fenceless field, London Routledge.Freud, S. 1962. twain Short Accounts of Psychoanalysis (translated and edited by James Strachey), London Penguin.Golsworthy, R. and Coyle, A. 2001. Practitioners accounts of religious and spiritual dimensions in bereavement therapy, Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 14(3), pp 183202.Kasprow, M.C. and Scotton, B.W. 1999. A canvass of Transpersonal Theory and Its applica tion to the Practice of Psychotherapy. Journal ofPsychotherapy Practiceand Research, 8(1), pp 12-23.Lajoie, D. H. Shapiro, S. I. (1992).Definitions of transpersonal psychology The first twenty-three years. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 24(1), pp 79-98..Maslow, A.H. 1943. A Theory of Human demand, Psychological Review, 50 pp 370-96.Maslow, A.H 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York Harper.Maslow, A.H. 1971. The farther reaches of human nature. New York Penguin.Phillips, A. 2000. Promises, Promises. London Faber and Faber.Prochaska, J.O. and Norcross, J.C. 2003. Systems of Psychotherapy A Transtheoretical Analysis, Pacific Grove Thomson.Rogers, C.R. 1961. On Becoming a Person A therapists view of psychotherapy, London Constable.Sutherland, M. 2001. Developing a transpersonal approach to pastoral counselling, British Journal of Guidance Counselling, 29(4), pp 381-390.Thornton, S.P. 2006. Sigmund Freud Internet Enclycopedia of Philosophy, URL http//www.iep.utm.edu/f/freud. htm (Accessed 8 September 2008).1Footnotes1 Fordham notes that the earliest application of analysis to a child of which he is aware was to a child aged 13 months, a process that was hardly at all verbal (Fordham 1995, p145).2 This paper also reports a common frustration that much mainstream therapy ignores or underplays religious experience, which is likely part of the appeal of transpersonal psychology.3 This paper reports the same frustration as described in the previous footnote, from the specific perspective of clerics who may have reliable training in secular forms of psychological counselling.